Brazilian White Knee Tarantula

Happy Halloween to all our readers and fans! A scary tarantula quick guide for this spooky day! We are very close to opening our retail store, should be sometime the first week of november. Stay Tuned!

Brazilian White Knee Tarantula

Range	Forests of northern Brazil.
Type	Terrestrial.
Diet	Spiderlings eat pinhead crickets and other small insects. Adults eat crickets, other large insects, small lizards, pinkie mice, and an occasional fuzzy mouse.
Full Grown Size	7 to 8 inches.
Growth	Fast speed.
Temperature	80 to 85° F.
Humidity	75 to 80%. All tarantulas that have at least a 3" legspan may drink from a shallow, wide water dish.
Temperament	Semi-aggressive and nervous.
Housing	Spiderlings can live in a clear plastic deli-container with air holes. Adults can live in a 10 to 15-gallon tank. Floor space is more important than height.
Substrate	3 to 4 inches of peat moss, or potting soil.
Decor	Logs, driftwood, cork bark, etc. make good hiding places. Moss can be added for floor cover.
Other Names	Brazilian Whiteknee Birdeater, Brazilian Whitekneed Tarantula, Brazilian White Banded Bird Eating Tarantula, Brazilian Black and White Stripe Birdeater, White Knee Tarantula, Whitekneed Bird Eating Tarantula, Giant White Knee Birdeater, Giant Whitekneed Tarantula, and Santarem Pink Haired Bird Eating Tarantula.

*Please note that ALL tarantulas have a certain amount of venom. Although most people are not affected by this species, some people may be allergic to the venom, or just more sensitive, making it a dangerous situation. This is one of the reasons that people should not handle this tarantula. Also, New World species of tarantulas like this one can flick urticating hairs off of their abdomens, which can also cause a reaction, depending on the person. Affects of this tarantulas' natural defenses may vary between people. All tarantulas should be considered dangerous, so be careful, because you don't want to find out if you are allergic or more sensitive the HARD WAY!

Red Footed Tortoise Care

This is a long one!

Care of Red Footed Tortoise by Bennett Greenberg

Red-foot tortoises (Geochelone carbonaria) are among the most popular and appropriate tortoises for beginning tortoise keepers. Stunningly attractive, their black shell contrasts with their yellow scute areola, bright red legs and yellow or red markings on their head. Being from multiple habitats, they are among the hardiest of species. As long as their requirements are met, Red-foots can be expected to give literally a lifetime of companionship.

Red-Footed Tortoises are inhabitants of grassland Savannah and forests in South America. They can tolerate fairly high humidity and temperatures ranging from the mid 80's to low 70's with the occasional drop down into the 50's. Access to fresh water should be provided at all times, Red-Foots do drink a lot of water and respond well to daily showers and weekly soaks.

Diet and Feeding

Red Foot tortoises are omnivorous. Precise tastes and requirements may vary seasonally. Attempting to sustain a Red-foot tortoise on a diet of mixed grasses would not be advisable; this species is ill equipped to effectively metabolize large quantities of silica-rich grass. One consequence of the higher protein, higher purine content diet of Red-foot and Yellow-foot tortoises is that they must always have access to fresh drinking and soaking water, and must be provided with adequately humid enclosures or terrariums. Dehydration is a very serious hazard to any tortoise consuming higher protein and purine content foods (mushrooms, for example).

It is no coincidence that all species with this class of dietary preference occur in high rainfall, high humidity ecosystems with regular access to free water. In practical terms, both species require high humidity maintenance. As with all tortoises, they also require a high ratio of calcium to phosphorus, additional trace elements and vitamin D3. Sprinkle the food every seven to ten days with Rep-Cal Calcium supplement or Miner-All. Use without vitamin d3 for outdoor specimens and with vitamin d3 for indoor specimens. Red-foot and Yellow-foot tortoises do not bask to the same extent as arid-habitat species, and therefore obtain much of their D3 needs in nature from the animal component of their diet.

The Red-Footed Tortoise has excellent color vision. They need dark leafy greens such as dandelions, turnip greens, mustard greens, romaine lettuce, collard and beet greens. Toppings such as alfalfa hay, timothy grass, rye grass and oats are good for fiber in the Red Foot's diet. Their diet should be supplemented with protein such as crickets, worms, cooked egg and low calorie cat food or dog food and occasional portions of commercial tortoise foods. These should only be as supplements and not with every feeding.

Limit the intake of meats to about once every week. Rinse all grocery store greens and fruits to remove pesticide residues. Mader's 'Reptile Medicine and Surgery' (1996), recommends 75% vegetables and greens, 20% fruit, and 5% high-protein-content foods. As with any turtle or tortoise variety is key. Feed your Red-Foot a mix of chopped greens such as romaine lettuce, dandelion, mustard and collard greens sprinkled with fibrous toppings such as alfalfa hay, timothy grass and oats. On every second to third feeding, along with the chopped greens and grasses add some chopped papaya, mango, prickly pair or similar fruits. Fruits are normally consumed in a very ripe state after they have fallen from the tree.

Once every 7 days, along with the chopped greens and grasses, add small portions of protein such as chopped worms, crickets, chopped cooked egg or possibly even a commercial tortoise food. The greens, grasses and fruits mentioned above are just examples of a wide variety of foods that your Red-Foot can and will eat. You can substitute comparable foods in most cases. Some suggestions are mushrooms, sow thistle, summer squash, green beans, yams, hibiscus and dandelion flowers and leaves, plumbs, grapes and cantaloupe and berries such as blackberries, strawberries and mulberries. Do not feed bananas.

Hatchling tortoises should be fed daily. A diet of chopped greens (kale, endive, mustard, dandelions, etc.) and (once a week) a commercial tortoise diet (15% to 18% protein) should be fed to the tortoises. They should be soaked in shallow lukewarm water every day. Do not keep them on sand. Slightly moist peat moss or moist coconut husk is an ideal substrate that will help elevate humidity. It must be changed regularly to prevent bacteria and mold build up. It is best not to feed the tortoises on the peat moss. They seem to be able to pass the peat moss safely however if eaten in small quantities. If your tortoise is kept warm, fed and watered regularly, and given adequate room it should live for years. Small tortoises can grow about 2 inches per year.

Housing

The substrate of choice is cypress mulch or something possessing the same humidity holding properties in order to keep their shells/skin from drying out in captive conditions. In outdoor pens in areas of high sand content, food should not be placed directly on sandy soil. Sand can build up in the tortoises GI tract leading to possible impaction and even death. A completely separate sand-free area in the habitat should be utilized to feed.

A typical habitat for a Red-foot Tortoise should be large enough for it to walk around, and contain several elements - a pool, a basking spot, and a shady spot. This would be at least 10 to 20 square feet. If weather permits, they should be housed outdoors. When housed indoors the tortoises should be exposed to full spectrum UV lighting for about 13 hours a day. The Red-foot Tortoise especially needs water to soak and defecate in.

If these tortoises are to be kept successfully, they will need to have a temperature gradient so they can move to cooler areas when needed, and likewise, also move to warmer basking areas. During the day, they should have access to areas about 90 - 95 degrees Fahrenheit and cooler areas in the low to mid 80s. At night the temperature should be lowered to about 68 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit. This species does not hibernate in nature. Facilities must be provided for the continued health and well being of the tortoise indoors in cooler (non tropical) climates.

Indoor Accommodation

Always try to avoid glass tanks such as aquariums. When tortoises can see through to the outside they have a tendency to spend most of their time trying to get out. If you must use a glass tank, cover the bottom four to six inches to block your tortoise's view. The most common form of indoor accommodation for small or medium sized Red-foot Tortoises consists of what looks like a bookshelf unit flipped onto its back. A reasonable size habitat for a hatchling is 2 feet by 3 feet, as the animal grows the size of this habitat should be increased. For a large adult Red-foot tortoise the indoor accommodation should be at least 6 feet by 4 feet. Food, water and eventually nesting containers should be placed flush with the surface for easier animal access when possible.

The water area of the habitat should be large enough to allow the tortoise to soak in it if it wishes - it must also be shallow enough to protect from drowning. Keep the water clean at all times. Red-Foots tend to defecate and urinate in their water. Remember, this is the same water they drink so keep it clean! Mist the indoor habitat daily and soak your Red-Foot at least once a week.

Considering the Red-Foot needs a higher humidity then most tortoises a substrate mix that will help maintain this humidity is recommended. A mixture of topsoil, sphagnum moss and "Bed-A-Beast" will work as a good substrate. If room permits, plant some shallow pans with grass, clover and dandelion for grazing and something like monkey grass or small shrubs for cover. Always try to make the habitat as natural as possible. Add a few rocks and a branch to help break up the tortoise's view of the entire habitat lending to a feel of a larger area.

Make sure the habitat is large enough to establish at least some type of temperature gradient. In one corner of the environment a 100W spot lamp should be positioned to provide artificial basking facilities. This should be positioned to provide a basking spot of 95 degrees F or so in that section of the habitat. The habitat should also be equipped with a full spectrum fluorescent light no more than 18" above the ground to provide for UVB. A UVB source is necessary for Vitamin D3 syntheses (needed in calcium metabolism). A supplement such as Rep-Cal Calcium supplement with vitamin d3 or Miner-All is recommended. There should be a hide box located in the corner away from the basking spot to allow the animal a dim retreat.

Outdoor Accommodation

Even though red-footed tortoise are medium-sized, they still need a large area or enclosure to roam in. 9 sq ft. per tortoise is recommended (Rundquist, 1994). Predator proof outdoor habitats offer many advantages over indoor accommodations and should seriously be considered as an option during warm weather.

Overall, this species does best in naturally humid climates outdoors. If your area is not naturally humid, water timers and a misting/sprinkler system can be utilized to artificially create one. Some areas of the habitat should be heavily planted to allow the Red-foot a cool dim retreat. Provision of a wet muddy area for wallowing will also be appreciated by your tortoise. Red-foots take readily to using a hutch or doghouse-like artificial retreat. Concrete floors are not recommended because they tend to be very cold and have been reported to cause prolapsed of the penis in male red-foots (Rendquist, 1994). In areas with cool nights a thermostatically controlled ceramic heater in such a retreat will provide the tortoise with an area that remains above 60 degrees F.

When building an enclosure for a Red Foot Tortoise you need to provide plenty of room for your tortoise to explore. For an adult I would recommend 10 to 12 feet square or larger. The larger the better. Provide grazing plants such as dandelion, clover, chicory and chickweed and common grasses such as monkey grass, fescue or Bermuda grass.

Your tortoise will need areas of shade and sunlight and a place to burrow or hide. Plant bushes or shrubs that can provide shade and grazing such as Hibiscus and Yucca and maybe even something like Wandering Jew for cover. Provide a partially buried hide box and an area of loose dirt and leaf mulch in one corner. The plants, hide box and mulch area will provide your Red-Foot with several areas of retreat. A shallow pan for water is needed. Dig a depression or hole to match the water pan's size and place the pan so that the top is at ground level.

This provides easy access but make sure your tortoise can easily exit the water dish at will. Add a few rocks and maybe a small fallen branch or two to break up the scenery. Make sure branches are not so big that the tortoise can fall off and land on its back. It is also recommended to hose down the entire enclosure daily and soak your tortoise at least once a week. This simulated rainfall can help stimulate your Tortoise's appetite and increase it's activity levels. There are different substrates available for indoor and outdoor enclosures but for my outdoor enclosure I opt for the ground itself, planted as specified above.

Breeding

Red-foots have peculiar mating rituals. If two Red-foot Tortoises are to mate, they first stand at each other's side. The instigating male will begin shaking its head to the side. If the other Tortoise is a male, it will shake its head in response, and the two will usually get into a mini-brawl. If it is a female, the Tortoise will not respond. The male will sniff the female's tail to make sure it's a female, and if confirmed, mating will commence. During a mating session, the male will make a clucking sound, which is similar to the clucking of a hen. Eggs incubate for about 120 days. Incubation temperatures should remain at 86 degrees Fahrenheit.

Red-foots are capable of producing eggs at any time during the year, although seasonal activity may be noted. One collection of tortoises kept outside in Kansas during warm weather and indoors during the colder months, laid eggs only from October to April for 7 consecutive years (Renquist, 1994). Because red-foots are capable of producing eggs at any time, it is advisable to have a nesting chamber full of damp peat moss and sand available to the females at all times.

A nesting chamber can be constructed by creating a large, open topped box with a ramp so the tortoises can enter and exit at will. The chamber should have the dimensions of 4 x 4 x 2 (l x w x h in feet) and be filled with moist nesting material to a depth of at least 20 inches (50 cm). It is important that more than one male be included in a breeding group, male to male combat is important in inducing breeding in red-foots.

Male to male combat begins with a round of head bobbing from each male involved, and then proceeds to a wresting match where the males attempt to turn one another over. The succeeding male (usually the largest male) then attempts to mate with the females. The ritualistic head movements displayed by male red-foots are thought to be a method of species recognition. Other tortoise species, most notably the closely related and sometimes sympatric yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata), have different challenging head movements. Red-footed tortoises have challenging head movements that are a series of lateral jerks, by contrast, yellow-footed tortoises utilize a long sideways sweep in their displays (Auffenberg, 1965).

Male red-foots peruse walking (seeming uninterested) females until they can maneuver them into a position for mating. The unique body shape of the male red-footed tortoise facilitates the mating process by allowing him to maintain his balance during copulation while the female walks around, seemingly attempting to dislodge the male by walking under low-hanging vegetation (Moskovits, 1988).

Incubation and Hatching Care

Gravid females will become restless before oviposition, and will wander around the enclosure looking for a suitable nesting site. A few days before oviposition occurs, the females will begin digging in their chosen nesting site. After the eggs are laid, the female will cover the eggs with substrate. Make sure to note where the female has been digging so that the eggs can be retrieved for artificial incubation. Clutch sizes vary from one to eight eggs, although some large clutches may reach 15 eggs. Red-foots are capable of clutching several times during the year.

After the eggs have been removed, bury them halfway in a container of slightly moistened vermiculite (1:1 ratio vermiculite to water by weight) and place them in the incubator. There is some controversy among tortoise breeders as to whether or not tortoise eggs should be moved from their original orientation in the nest before artificial incubation. Some breeders are careful to mark the top of the eggs so that their orientation is not changed when they are moved to the incubator. Others see this procedure at unnecessary and do not believe disorienting the eggs in the incubator has an effect on hatch rate. According to Marchellini and Davis (1982), red-footed tortoise eggs that were rotated from their original positions had a lower hatch rate, poorer survival rates, and higher incidence of hatch-ling deformities.

Different breeders have different results, but taking care not to rotate the eggs from their original orientation does not take much effort and may improve hatching rate and hatchling success. Do not incubate the eggs in a sealed container, sealed containers encourage CO2 buildup which can be detrimental to the developing eggs. The humidity in the incubator should be 80-100% and the incubator should be opened at least once a week, if not more, to allow fresh oxygen to reach the eggs.

Red-foot eggs are temperature sex dependent, incubation temperatures above 88 degrees F (31 degrees C) will produce females, and temperatures below 82 degrees F (28 degrees C) will produce males (Renquist, 1994). High temperatures however, can cause lower hatch rates and higher rates of deformed hatching. The ideal incubation temperature, if mixed-sex offspring are desired, is 84 degrees F (29 degrees C). Incubation periods range from 105 to 202 days, with an average of 150 days (Paull, 1995). After pipping, the baby tortoises will often spend a few days in their shell absorbing the yolk. Often hatch-ling tortoises will emerge with some yolk sac still present, cleanse the yolk sac with a mild disinfectant such as betadine and keep the hatch-ling on moist substrate until the yolk is absorbed (Renquist, 1994).

Hatch-ling tortoises can be housed inside in aquariums on a substrate of peat moss and sand, and have the same temperature and lighting requirements as the adults. Make sure to provide areas of high humidity and a shallow water dish at all times, hatch-ling red-foots are very susceptible to dehydration.

Kenyan Sand Boas

Scientific Name: Eryx Colubrinus
Common Name: Kenyan Sand Boa, East African Sand Boa
Location: Tanzania, Kenyan, Africa, Ethiopia, Egypt
Size: Adults typically around 36"-40", around 400g
Housing: Adults can live in a 20-gallon (long) tank or equivalent
Experience Needed: Beginner, Novice

Natural History


Kenyan sand boas are a small and attractive boid indigenous to Kenya and adjacent countries in East Africa. They are a fossorial species and spend much of their lives burrowed under the sandy soil in which they live.
These snakes are ideally suited for their lifestyle, and have some truly remarkable adaptations. The shape and opening of the mouth is situated in such a way as to avoid ingesting soil while digging, and the rear portion of the tail is covered in keeled scales which provide increased traction in soft sand.


This species is continuing to gain popularity in the pet trade and as a result, they are bred in large numbers and are readily available to the interested hobbyist. In addition to the naturally occurring color varieties a number of designer morphs have been produced. Albinos, snows, and anerythristic forms are but a few of the exciting and beautiful variations that you may find.


Size and Longevity


These are among the smallest boa species in the world. Males are typically much smaller than females and seldom measure more than 2 feet when mature. Females are heavier bodied (to support gestation and live birthing) and reach a maximum size of 3 feet.


Kenyan sand boas are extremely hardy and easy to keep. With good husbandry and attention to proper care guidelines, these snakes will live well over 20 years.


Housing


Due to their small size and inactive nature, Kenyan sand boas may be housed in fairly small and convenient enclosures. Babies can be maintained in a standard 10 gallon terrarium for their first year or so. After that, single animals should be housed in a 15 to 20 gallon terrarium, or equivalent enclosure. Pairs or trios should be given proportionally more space.


These snakes do not climb, and in fact, rarely venture above the surface of the substrate. This nature allows for the use of low-profile tanks that offer more floor space but a minimum of height. All enclosures for sand boas should have secure screen lids to prevent escapes and ensure adequate ventilation.


Heating and Lighting


As a desert species, Kenyan sand boas should be kept hot during the day with a slight drop in temperature at night. The warm side of the enclosure should be between 90 and 95 degrees during the day, with access to cooler areas in the low 80's. At night temperatures can safely drop to 70 degrees, although slightly warmer nighttime temps seem advantageous for younger animals.


Heat may be provided via the use of ceramic heat emitters, standard heat bulbs, and heating pads designed specifically for reptile use. Supplemental lighting is not required for this species. However, constant exposure to light can be stressful for any animal, so if heat lights are used during the day, they should be replaced by another form of heat after dark.


Substrate and Furnishings


Being a relatively inactive species, Kenyan sand boas do not require elaborate enclosures. A few inches of substrate should be provided for burrowing. Sand can be used safely as long as your snakes are fed in an alternate container to prevent ingestion. Other suitable substrates include aspen chips (Sani-chips), shredded aspen, or any other desert-type bedding that is designed for use with snakes and is not overly dusty.


Although most sand boas will spend the majority of their time dug into burrows, a few additional hiding spots can be added. Slabs of cork bark and half-logs are both acceptable. Avoid heavy pieces of stone or wood that may settle onto a digging snake and cause crushing injuries. Further decorations such as plastic cacti can be used at the keepers discretion but will be more for aesthetics than for functionality.


Water and Humidity


Kenyan sand boas should be kept dry as to simulate the deserts from which they originate. Shedding problems are rare with this species, but if they occur temporarily offering your snakes a localized area of increased humidity should remedy the problem.


In cages with screen tops, a small water dish may be provided at all times. However, because these animals are so sensitive to high levels of humidity, water bowls should only be offered a few times a week in less ventilated enclosures or in rack systems.


Nutrition


As with other aspects of sand boa husbandry, feeding is fairly straight forward. Snakes of all sizes should be offered one appropriately sized prey item once a week. A suitably sized mouse for a sand boa should be just big enough to leave a noticeable bulge in the snakes belly. Newborn (pinky) mice are ideal for hatchlings, while large adults will easily consume a fully adult mouse.


Pre-killed prey (either freshly killed or frozen/thawed) are recommended to reduce the likelihood of bites to your snake during the constricting process. Additionally, feeding your snakes in a container other than their primary habitat is advised. This ensures that no substrate is ingested when you snake feeds and also seems to cut down on the overall level of aggression of the animal when it is in it’s enclosure.


Handling


Although these snakes are rarely seen exploring their enclosures, they can be removed and handled easily. They are not aggressive, and specimens that have been handled regularly will become quite tame. Keep in mind that these snakes like to burrow, so their movements on solid ground and in your hands may seem spastic and jumpy. This is normal, and they should adjust to your touch over time.


As with any snake, avoid over handling. If your snake seems stressed as indicated by lack of appetite or unusual aggression, consider reducing the frequency of handling sessions until the animal’s behavior normalizes.

Chameleons & Vitamin A

Holly Frisby, DVM, MS
Veterinary Services

What Is Vitamin A?

Vitamin A is a fat soluble vitamin, and can be stored in fatty tissues in the body. Vitamin A is required for healthy skin, mucous membranes, the retina of the eye, muscles, teeth, and other tissues. It is necessary for proper growth, reproduction, and a properly functioning immune system. Some forms of vitamin A also have antioxidant properties. It is an essential nutrient, meaning it must be included in the diet.

What Are the Forms of Vitamin A?

There are several forms of vitamin A. Beta-carotene is a form commonly found in vegetables. Many animals can convert beta-carotene into vitamin A. Others, such as the cat, cannot, and must have what is commonly referred to as preformed vitamin A. It was originally thought that chameleons could convert beta-carotene, but recent research suggests that they too may need preformed vitamin A.

There has been considerable controversy over how much, and what type of vitamin A chameleons need. Reports of small research studies in the 1990s suggested chameleons should not be given preformed vitamin A, since it could result in excessive levels of vitamin A in the animal (hypervitaminosis A). Later research found this information to be incorrect. Many chameleons today suffer from vitamin A deficiency (hypovitaminosis A) due to the misinformation published in the early 1990s.

What Are the Signs of Vitamin A Abnormalities?

Hypovitaminosis A

• Reduced growth rate
• Death
• Metabolic bone disease
• Necrosis/sloughing of the tip of the tail
• Swollen lips
• Swelling around the eyes
• Abnormal vertebrae
• Difficulty with maintaining a grip or posture
• Increased number of upper respiratory infections
• Inability to reproduce or death of eggs
• Loss of appetite
• Skin abnormalities
• Hemipenile impactions in young males

Hypervitaminosis A

• Loss of appetite
• Liver enlargement
• Bone abnormalities
• Calcium deposits in soft tissues
• Skin abnormalities

Why Are Pet Chameleons Susceptible to Vitamin A Deficiency?

Chameleons kept as pets often have a diet that primarily consists of insects. In many cases, insects purchased for feeding have not been fed properly and have poor vitamin A levels. In the wild, chameleons also eat small lizards and birds as part of their diet. These species, because of the vegetable matter in their stomach and intestines, provide much higher levels of vitamin A. In addition, the insects they feed on have generally not been nutritionally deprived, as are some purchased insects.

How Are Chameleons With Vitamin A Abnormalities Treated?

Hypovitaminosis A is treated by giving oral or inject-able vitamin A. The husbandry and nutrition must be corrected to prevent recurrence. Secondary problems such as infections also need to be treated. Animals with severe deficiencies may have permanent problems such as skeletal abnormalities, eye disease, or impaired respiration.

The basic treatment of hypervitaminosis A is to remove the supplemental source of vitamin A. Secondary problems such as liver toxicity or skin abnormalities will also need to be treated.

How Should Chameleons Be Fed?

In the wild, chameleons eat a wide variety of insects. As pets, they are generally fed crickets, mealworms, and wax worms. Feeder insects should be coated with calcium supplement (powdered calcium carbonate or calcium gluconate) twice a week for adult Veiled Chameleons; every day for juveniles. The insects should also be "gut-loaded," which means the insects are fed nutritious and vitamin-rich foods before they are given to the chameleon.

Vitamin Rich Foods to Feed Insects

• apples
• broccoli
• carrots
• cereals
• collard greens
• cornmeal
• ground legumes
• mustard greens
• oranges
• rolled oats
• spinach
• sweet potatoes

There are also commercial products rich in calcium and vitamins that can be fed to the insects. There are entire books and manuals on the subject of properly feeding prey insects for pet reptiles. Try to become as knowledgeable as possible regarding the housing and caring for prey insects. It is time-consuming and may be more expensive, but it will help your chameleon live a longer and healthier life.

If the insects are gut-loaded properly, additional vitamin supplementation is often not necessary. Because the amount of food these insects eat cannot always readily be determined, some veterinarians prefer adding a dietary supplement, especially to breeding animals. Others recommend supplementing adults once a week, and juveniles every other feeding. Specific recommendations vary with the species, age, and if the animal is breeding, so a veterinarian knowledgeable about herps should be consulted.

Feed as varied a diet as possible. In general, the more variety, the less likely a nutritional deficiency or excess will occur. Insects may be purchased or wild-caught (without the use of pesticides). Live, wild-caught insects can provide interest, mental and physical stimulation, as well as good nutrition.

Good Foods to Feed Chameleons

• Caterpillars
• Cicadas
• Cockroaches
• Crickets — no more than 50% of diet
• Earthworms
• Flies
• Grain beetles
• Grasshoppers
• Meal worms
• Pinkie mice
• Silkworms and silk moths
• Walking sticks
• Wax moths
• Wax worms — high in fat, so feed sparingly

The chameleon should be fed by placing the insects in a small bowl. After feeding, check that none of the insects escaped and fouled the water supply in the cage.

Some Veiled Chameleons also appreciate a small amount of plant material in their diet. Clip mustard or collard greens to the side of the cage, and spray them with water.

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Spectacled Caiman Quick Guide

Spectacled Caiman Care Sheet

Natural Environment: Found along the Amazon River basin in South America.

Other species covered by this care sheet: Dwarf Caiman, Culver’s Dwarf Caiman, Yacari Caiman, Piranha Caiman

Characteristics: Males tend to grow faster and they get larger. Average male can be 6 feet, female 4.5 feet. Mostly Active Night. They are nocturnal by nature.

Life expectancy: is 75 in the wild. Unknown in captivity.

Sexing: When the cloaca is large enough to put your pinky in, you can sex them. This usually doesn't happen until they are about 3 years old or about 3-4 feet. I don’t recommend probing, because a slight miss can ruin your caiman's reproduction chances.

Housing: Full grown Caimans should have an entire 12-14 ft squared room with land and water, water should be filtered, and changed regularly to avoid bacteria build-up from waste and uneaten food items. Pond liners and filters are often used and are readily available from local lawn and garden centers. Water temp should be 80-85F. Large aquarium heaters can be placed within the filtration system. (use manufacturer recommended size for gallons in your setup). They are not particularly fond of light, a hide box or cave should be provided.

Lighting :Full spectrum lighting 12-14 hours per day when housed indoors. Use an Infrared Heat Bulb at night for heat and night time viewing

Temperature: 85-90 degrees for air and water, a basking area of 100 degrees is also recommended

Humidity: High level of humidity is required, this is usually not a problem if the proper water requirements are provided

Diet: A varied diet of Chicken ,Live fish, Dead fish, deer, steak, any raw meat, rabbits, or squirrels. A good reptile calcium should be used on occasion, especially when your caiman isn't getting the proper full spectrum lighting or natural sunlight.

Breeding: Usually during the rainy season (spring). Mothers can lay between 20-40 eggs.

Notes: Caimans are wild, even captive bred specimens will always remain aggressive. They will bite the hand that feeds them. They should never be kept in areas where small children or other beloved animals are present. Never let them out of your sight while cleaning the enclosure. check your local laws about the keeping of this species.

Snake Disease and health Care Issues

Amazon Tree Boa pic by Macowsky

Todays article is all about different snake health care issues a compilation from Animal Hospitals USA (its a long one)

Snake Diseases/General

Constipation: Is a common problem among captive snakes. Causes include suboptimal environmental temperature, illness, dehydration, injuries, parasitism, and cloacoliths (see below). Constipated snakes should be allowed to soak in very warm (not scalding hot) water for 20-30 minutes daily for 1-2 days. This often results in defecation and/or urination. It this conservative measure is not successful, veterinary help should be sought at once.

Cloacoliths: Dehydration of captive snakes (especially if long standing) may result in drying out of urinary excretions. When this occurs, uric acid "stones" tend to form within the cloaca ('cloacoloths'). Their presence in this location prevents expulsion of urinary waste and feces (constipation), which creates serious illness. Dehydration is a sign of disease and not a disease in itself, so it becomes the veterinarian's task to determine the underlying problem that caused the dehydration. Cloacoliths can usually be manually expelled with patience and the help of mineral oil enemas. Only an experienced veterinarian should attempt this procedure.

Prolapses: A prolapse occurs when an organ inverts itself inside out and protrudes through the usual external opening of that organ. Prolapses of the cloaca and reproductive organs are not uncommon among captive snakes. Often the cause cannot be determined. Straining during egg laying can precipitate prolapses or straining related to uric acid stones. Parasitic infections or other intestinal disease may also result in prolapses. Veterinary assistance is essential in these cases to treat the prolapse and determine the underlying cause, if possible.

Abnormal shedding: Occurs when the normal sequence of events of the shedding process is somehow interrupted. This usually results in a piece-meal shed and/or retained eye caps. Causes include serious internal disease, inadequate relative humidity, and previous injury (including surgery) to the skin and scales, external parasitism, lack of adequate objects against which to rub at the beginning of the shed, and thyroid gland problems. An abnormal shed indicates a problem that demands immediate attention. In these cases, consider all of the aforementioned causes, most of which demand veterinary assistance. Treatment of a snake with retained skin from an abnormal shed involves first soaking the snake in warm water for several hours. A damp towel can then be used to gently peel off stubborn skin fragments. An alternative to this manual method involves rolling the snake snugly in warm moist, heavy towels and allowing it to crawl out, leaving the stubborn skin fragments behind. This procedure can be repeated if necessary.

Retained eye caps: Are often a manifestation of an abnormal shed. The eye caps represent the outermost cellular layers of the corneas (the transparent portions of the eyes), which are supposed to be shed each time the outermost layers of the skin are shed. The retained caps must first be softened by repeated application of a suitable eye ointment. Next, an experienced veterinarian should attempt to carefully remove the corneal remnants. An inexperienced hobbyist should never attempt this.

Cancer: Occurs in snakes, but the number of reports is very limited. Some tumors have been diagnosed on living snakes, but most were diagnosed at the time of autopsy. As with mammals, tumors of snakes can be benign or malignant and originate from any organ or tissue of the body, including blood. Boa constrictors seem to be more often affected by cancer than other snakes commonly kept in captivity. This observation, however, may be the result of the disproportionately large number of boas kept by hobbyists because of their tremendous popularity. It is interesting to note, however, that most life-threatening malignancies that we have diagnosed in snakes have involved boa constrictors. Snake owners must be vigilant and seek prompt veterinary help when a growth or lump is detected on their snake(s) (especially if a boa constrictor is involved). "Mole-like" growths have been especially troublesome in our experience. Wounds that fail to heal despite treatment should make you equally suspicious.

Organ Failure: Failure of vital organ function may be the result of advancing age or cancer but is usually a consequence of chronic and unchecked disease among captive snakes. Disease that has gone undetected and/or untreated can have devastating and sometimes, fatal consequences. Under these circumstances, organ function is greatly compromised and the snake's usually smooth-running metabolism is threatened. Dehydration and uric acid build-up within the kidneys and possibly other vital organs further complicates the picture.

Snake Diseases/Feeding

Nutritional Deficiencies: As stated earlier, nutritional deficiencies and disease resulting from malnutrition are relatively rare among captive snakes because of their habit of consuming whole prey animals. However, exclusive use of whole but immature prey animals, such as "pinkies" (neonatal mice and rats), juvenile goldfish and invertebrates, can create nutritional problems. Further, certain snakes that receive a monotonous diet (no variety of prey items) are also susceptible to nutritional deficiencies. The hobbyist must find ways to 'supplement' the prey items in these cases before they are offered to the snake. One method involves injecting the prey items with vitamin and/or mineral preparations. Another involves implanting a gelatin capsule filled with a powdered vitamin/mineral/amino acid supplement into the prey animal.

Failure to Voluntarily Feed (Anorexia): Lack of appetite and failure to voluntarily feed are common problems among captive snakes. Despite the fact that snakes are uniquely suited to survive prolonged periods without feeding, the hobbyist must make every attempt to discover the reason(s) for the snake's failure to feed. This search must include the possibility of illness, since anorexia is a universal sign of disease in snakes. First consider the circumstances and situations during which snakes normally will not feed:

• Recent acquisition of a snake.
• Snake in pre-shed condition.
• Latter stages of pregnancy.
• Older, larger snakes feed less often than younger, smaller ones.
• Obese snakes occasionally engage in self-imposed fasts.
• Newborn or newly hatched snakes may not feed until after they've first shed 10-14 days after birth.
• Hyperactivity associated with the breeding season or the imposition of captivity on newly acquired high-strung species.
• Hibernation or attempts to hibernate.
• Illness

If all of the above have been rejected as causes for anorexia, you must next consider problems with husbandry. The most common cause for failure of a snake to voluntarily feed is inadequate environmental temperatures. Tropical snakes require temperatures between 75 to 85 F for normal activity and optimum digestive capacity. Subnormal temperatures lead to sluggishness and incomplete digestion. The food literally spoils inside the snake, producing serious illness, an early sign of which is vomiting. The next most common cause for captive snakes' refusing to feed is lack of adequate visual security. Many snakes require privacy while they feel. A hiding box or natural bark or rock retreat may be necessary. Sometimes placing the reluctant snake in a room burlap bag along with a dead or incapacitated prey item provides the security the snake requires to feed. Strategic placement of silk artificial plants may also help provide additional visual security. There may be one particular area of the enclosure in which the snake feels more secure. The food should be consistently placed where to encourage feeding. It is important to note that the presence of spectators often discourages nervous snakes from feeding. The enclosure should be covered in these cases and the snake's activity discreetly monitored.

It is extremely important for you to understand the natural history of the anorectic snake being kept in captivity. Reluctance or refusal to feed often is the result of some omission or mistake in husbandry. Burrowing species require sand or fine gravel in which to bury themselves. The snake can often be induced to strike at prey by gently dragging the prey item across the sand. Tree-dwelling species require branches within their enclosure. Some of these snakes may be encouraged to feed by hanging the food in the fork of a branch rather than placing it on the floor of the enclosure. If these specific husbandry requirements are not provided, certain snakes may not feed. Offering incorrect prey items nearly always causes a captive snake to refuse to eat. One should offer the prey items that the snake would feed n in the wild or similar more "domestic" food that is available. Following is a list of additional suggestions to consider when you are challenged with a snake that refuses to feed:

• Try feeding at different times of the day. Nocturnal (night-active) species cannot be expected to feed on prey items placed within the enclosure during the daytime.
• Try feeding nervous snakes that share an enclosure with other snakes in an environment separate from them. Often, the movement of other snakes in the same enclosure induces anorexia in nervous snakes.
• Moving a snake to a new or different enclosure may stimulate feeding.
• Reduce handling of especially nervous or newly acquired snakes to encourage feeding.
• Rubbing the food item over the sensitive areas of the snake's head (the nostrils and the areas surrounding the mouth) or gently hitting the snake with the prey may antagonize it to strike at the food.
• Offer live prey to snakes that have been consistently offered dead or incapacitated prey (with close supervision). Certain aggressive snakes and snakes with an impaired sense of smell may require live prey to successfully feed.
• For snakes that ordinarily eat live prey, try feeding dead or incapacitated live prey items. Often, the erratic motions of a rodent running around an enclosure can cause a snake to refuse to feed.
• Try feeding a smaller prey item. A snake that has been recently injured by a particularly large and aggressive prey animal may be reluctant to feed.
• Cater as much as possible to the individual preferences of an anorectic snake. If a snake refuses mice, try small rats, gerbils, hamsters, rabbits or even chicks. Some snakes can be very finicky.

If all of the above have been considered and attempted without success, take your snake to a veterinarian experienced with snakes. The veterinarian will collect a detailed history and conduct a through physical examination. It may be necessary to collect a blood sample to more thoroughly evaluate the patient. Take along a fecal (stool) sample from the snake so the veterinarian can also check for intestinal parasites. A veterinarian may pass a flexible tube into the stomach and force-feed the anorectic snake at this time. This provides some nutrients while the medical evaluation is in progress. Some anorectic snakes begin to voluntarily feed after such a feeding. This can be easily learned if periodic at-home force-feedings are anticipated. Strained meat baby foods with added nutrients or pureed dog food are recommended and easily pass through most stomach tubes. Larger snakes require relatively larger volumes of food; pureed dog food is a more practical food in these situations. Low-fat dog food is preferable.

Regurgitation: of food may result from handling a snake too soon after it is fed. Regurgitated food is undigested and relatively odorless. Another common cause of regurgitation is inadequate and incomplete digestion caused by relatively cool environmental temperatures. In these cases, the regurgitated food appears digested and is malodorous. If it is not possible to raise the temperature of the enclosure, a focal source of heat (hot rock, heating pad or pads) on which the snake can rest is a necessity to ensure adequate and complete digestion. Other causes of regurgitation include stress in easily excitable species, parasitism, intestinal obstruction and serious internal disease. An experienced veterinarian should be consulted if the cause for regurgitation is not readily determined.

Snake Diseases/Injuries

Trauma:

Burns: Snakes commonly sustain serious burns when they contact unprotected or malfunctioning heat lamps or other heat sources (including hot rocks). Interestingly, snakes tend not to move away from the heat source inflicting the injury. This makes the wound considerably more serious. Medical treatment (including injectable antibiotics and periodic wound dressings) is required in these cases. Surgery may be necessary to minimize the disfiguring effects of such injuries. These injuries are easily avoidable. Periodically check all heating appliances to make certain they are functioning properly and that they are "snake proof".

Rat/Mouse Attack: Sometimes a live mouse or rat turns the tables on a snake and injures the snake while fighting for its life (the dinner becomes the diner).Veterinary attention should be sought for serious bite wounds.

Rostral Abrasions: One of the unfortunate consequences of captivity is injury to the captive animal from repeated attempts to escape. Snakes tend to push and rub their noses against the walls of their enclosure as they move about in search of a means to escape. This constant trauma initially damages the scales and skin of the nose (rostrum). If the trauma continues, deep ulceration of the rostrum with subsequent deformity may result. Rostral abrasions are equally likely with enclosures made of glass or wire mesh. Prevention of this problem is difficult, but adequate visual security (hiding places) and other additions to the enclosure (artificial plants, branches, etc.) help minimize it. Further, a visual barrier of bark paint or plastic film placed on or along the loser 3-4 inches of the enclosure's walls often inhibits pacing and rubbing.

Abscesses: Abscesses are a common form of Bactirial infections in snakes. They can be external and/or internal in location. External abscesses most often result from bite wounds (usually inflicted by live prey animal) and other injuries (especially puncture wounds) to the skin. Internal abscesses may be located within one or more organs and/or within the body cavity. Snakes rarely produce liquid pus. Instead, their pus is generally cheesy in consistency. This makes treatment with antibiotics difficult because these drugs cannot penetrate this relatively solid material. External abscesses can be surgically opened and flushed by a veterinarian. A specimen of pus can be submitted to a laboratory for bacterial culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing. The snake can be treated with the appropriate antibiotic by injection, and the abscess cavity treated with topical antibiotics. Abscesses within the body are not equally accessible for treatment. A blood workup and/or radiographs (x-rays) may be necessary to confirm their presence. Though surgery may be necessary under certain circumstances, long-term antibiotic therapy by injection and appropriate supportive care are the treatments most likely to be employed by the veterinarian.

Snake Diseases/Parasitic

Parasitic Diseases: Snakes can be hosts to a large number of parasites, representing a bewildering variety of organisms that can cause many problems. A large number of one-celled organisms (protozoa) can cause serious diseases of the digestive, respiratory, reproductive and vascular blood and bloodstream) systems of snakes. Flukes cause illness in the respiratory and urinary systems. Tapeworms parasitize the digestive system. Roundworms and related parasites inhabit the digestive tract, but their juvenile states can cause disease to other organs (especially the lungs) during the course of their migrations. Large numbers of mites and ticks parasitize the skin and scales of snakes, and create disease by feeding on the host's blood. Signs of parasitism depend on the parasite and body tissue involved. External parasites are usually easy to diagnose, though immature stages of mites may lie dormant under scales or just inside the eye cavity. Visual inspection of the skin and scales, with or without a magnifying lens, is usually all that is necessary. Internal parasite problems require examination of various specimens, most often blood, feces, urinary tract products, and washings from the windpipe and lungs. Special laboratory procedures are necessary to process these specimens. Microscopic examination is usually necessary.

Most parasites of pet snakes and snakes kept in zoological collections are carried with them into captivity. These snakes were either parasitized before being collected in the wild or became parasitized while being held in the generally crowded wholesale and retail channels. Pet snakes living singly in homes are very unlikely to develop parasite problems in these relatively isolated environments. Exceptions to this generalization include pet snakes exposed to parasitized snakes and their excretions, or to the specific organisms (called "vectors") necessary for parasites to complete their life cycles. In most cases, the vector must bite the uninfected snake for the snake to become parasitized. It is also possible for a captive snake to become parasitized by eating certain prey species that harbor the larval stage of a given parasite. Newly acquired snakes should be thoroughly examined and evaluated by a veterinarian for external and internal parasites as soon as possible after acquisition. All detected parasitism should be treated, if possible. No snake should be introduced into a collection until a veterinarian has examined it, and until it has been quarantined for a minimum of 8 weeks and remains healthy during this period. Strict attention to hygiene and sanitation and a proper diet usually contribute to optimum health, even in the face of mild to moderate parasitism. Because the subject of parasitism is so extensive, only several of the more common parasite problems of captive snakes will be specifically mentioned:

Amebiasis: Amebiasis is one of the most significant parasite problems of captive snakes. This highly contagious disease is caused by a microscopic, one-celled organism (protozoan) called and ameba. Eating contaminated food and water containing the infective stage of this parasite easily infects snakes. The organisms cause extensive damage to the intestinal lining and liver. Secondary bacterial infections are very common and contribute significantly to the severity of the disease. Signs of amebiasis include listlessness, inappetence, and foul-smelling feces containing mucus and blood. A veterinarian may be able to diagnose this disease by having the laboratory examine specially prepared samples of feces. Sometimes examination of tissue sections of the intestine or scrapings from the lining of the intestine of a deceased snake is the only way the diagnosis can be confirmed. This underscores the importance of performing autopsies on snakes that have died, especially when there are other snakes in the collection whose lives may be threatened. Many snakes native to the American Southwest harbor these organisms but apparently do not suffer from the disease. Crocodiles and certain turtles are similar "carriers." Hobbyists must, therefore, exercise caution when housing snakes with these species to avoid an outbreak of amebiasis. Certain water snakes, as well as boa constrictors and pythons are especially susceptible to this disease. Amebiasis is treatable, requiring the expertise of a veterinarian. Specific antiprotozoal medications and antibiotics are used. Enclosures used to house infected snakes should be steam cleaned and disinfected with a 3% bleach solution.

Trichomoniasis: One of the most commonly recognized parasites of snakes is another protozoan, Trichomonas. This organism is often noted in the stools of snakes when routine direct examinations are undertaken. Infection with Trichomonas may result from ingestion of mice and rats, both of which often harbor the parasite without showing signs of illness. Infected snakes may exhibit no signs or those associated with gastrointestinal disease (inappetence, vomiting, and diarrhea). Some infected snakes may also have bacterial disease at the same time. Some experts remain unconvinced that this parasite, by itself, can produce disease in snakes because infected snakes are often suffering from amebiasis at the same time. The most prudent course of action is to treat all snakes harboring the parasite. Fortunately, the treatment for trichomoniasis is usually effective in eliminating the organism that causes amebiasis. A veterinarian should be consulted regarding diagnosis and treatment of this parasitic disease.

Snake Mite Infestation: Snake mites are tiny spider-like organisms that reside on and between the scales of snakes and tend to also congregate around their eyes. They are relatively easy to see with the unaided eye but a magnifying lens aids in their identification. Mites are the most common and most dangerous of the external parasites of captive snakes. These mites feed on the blood of their hosts, causing anemia (often sever with heavy infestations). Blood feeding can also transmit viruses, at least one very serious disease-causing bacterium, and blood parasites. The snake mite completes its life cycle on its host. The females, however, lay up to 80 eggs off the snake within the immediate environment. This is one reason why particulate floor coverings (corncob material, pebbles, etc.) are not recommended. These substrates provide too many hiding places for the mites and their eggs.

Snakes that are most likely to be seriously compromised by this external parasite are those that have been recently imported and those housed under crowded, unhygienic conditions. Heavily parasitized snakes are also likely to be adversely affected when they are suffering from malnutrition and/or other diseases at the same time. Veterinarians must be consulted when these various circumstances arise. These snakes must be carefully examined and thoroughly evaluated so that underlying disease and problems with husbandry can be identified and corrected. Further, the recommended treatment can often be injurious, especially to snakes suffering from debility and/or disease. The veterinarian must perform a thorough physical examination and may recommend a blood analysis to fully evaluate the patient, the advisability of treatment and the least harmful method of treatment for mites. Several treatments are available for snake mites. One popular method involves suspending a No-Pest Strip (Hot Shot) above or adjacent to the snake's enclosure for 2-5 days. One expert recommends a "dosage" of 0.2 inches of commercial strip per 10 cubic feet of enclosure. An alternative is to place a 1-inch section of a No-Pest Strip within a 35-mm film container with multiple perforations and suspend it inside the enclosure for 2-5 days. These products should be used cautiously, however. They can be especially toxic to severely ill and debilitated snakes. Flea sprays formulated for use on dogs and cats can be applied to a small towel and the chemical can be wiped onto the skin and scales. This should be repeated about 10 days later. During treatment, paper or towels must replace any particulate floor covering (gravel, crushed corncob, wood shavings, etc.) within the enclosure. All water containers should also be removed. The enclosure itself should be thoroughly cleaned and fumigated with 10-15% solution of formalin and hot water. After a thorough rinsing, the enclosure should be allowed to completely dry before it is re-inhabited. Treated snakes should be closely monitored for several months for signs of re-infestation and mite-related disease.

Snake Tick Infestation: Ticks resemble oversized mites and occupy many of the same sites on the skin and scales of snakes as mites. They are often found just inside the mouth, nostrils or vent. Even under conditions of captivity, ticks rarely reach the burdensome numbers reached by mites. Recently imported snakes are usually the most heavily parasitized. Like mites, ticks feed on blood of the host snake and can cause severe, life-threatening anemia. Their blood-feeding habit enables them to transmit certain blood-borne diseases to snakes. Manual removal of each individual tick is the most expedient treatment for tick infestations. The hobbyist must exercise great care in performing this task. Simply pulling off the tick leaves the tick's mouth parts embedded in the skin. A small amount of alcohol applied to the exposed parts of the tick causes it to relax and facilitates removal. The treatment methods recommended for mites are also effective. Parasitized snakes usually require a minimum of 4 days exposure to No-Pest Strips to kill ticks. Enlist the services of an experienced veterinarian for a thorough pretreatment evaluation of the snake, especially if the use of a No-Pest Strip is anticipated.

Snake Diseases/Infections

Mouth Rot (Infectious or Ulcerative Stomatitis): Is a progressive bacterial infection involving the oral lining. It may begin with increased salivation. Often saliva bubbles from the mouth. Close inspection of the oral lining reveals tiny pinpoint areas of bleeding. The oral lining becomes increasingly inflamed and pus begins to accumulate within the mouth, especially among the rows of teeth. As the disease progresses, the underlying bone becomes infected and the teeth fall out. This infection must be recognized in the early stages to successfully reverse it. The hobbyist must seek veterinary help when mouth rot is first evident. The veterinarian may want to collect a saliva/pus specimen for bacterial culture and subsequent antibiotic sensitivity testing to determine the appropriate antibiotic(s) to use. A blood sample can also be collected to accurately assess the internal and overall status of the patient. Mouth rot often is an external manifestation of more serious internal problems. Initial treatment involves injections of vitamins A, C and B complex, as well as a "best guess" antibiotic (one that the veterinarian believes has the best chance of fighting the infection until the results of antibiotic sensitivity tests are available). Supportive care involves daily or twice-daily cleansing of the mouth, application of topical antibiotics, administration of fluids to combat dehydration and the possible detrimental effects of certain antibiotics, and periodic forced-feedings (using a stomach tube). Generally, snakes with heavy accumulations of pus and infected bones of the jaw are unlikely to be saved, even with aggressive veterinary efforts. You must be alert to the early stages of the disease and periodically inspect the mouth for signs of mouth rot.

Blister disease: Is common in many captive reptiles. It is most often associated with the maintenance of these animals in damp, filthy environments. The first sign is usually a pink to red appearance of the bottom-most scales. Later, these scales become swollen and infected by bacteria and fungi. At the first suspicion of this disease, you must seek veterinary help. Treatment involves use of topical and injectable antibiotics. Further, the underlying sanitation and hygiene problems must be corrected. Blister disease is preventable if you are aware of it and if the enclosure in which captive snakes are housed is kept dry and scrupulously clean.

Septicemia: A wide variety of bacteria can cause generalized internal infections (septicemia). These bacteria may invade the body by way of wounds and abscesses or as a consequence of serious illness originally localized in the respiratory, gastrointestinal and reproductive tracts. Signs may be subtle or obvious and may include lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, and regurgitation of incompletely digested food, redness to the skin and scales, or bleeding from the skin. The help of an experienced veterinarian is essential n these cases. The outlook for these patients is always guarded to poor. The attending veterinarian may collect a specimen for bacterial culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing, as well as one or more blood samples to more accurately determine the extent of the disease, whether or not various internal organs are involved, and as a means of monitoring the patient's progress. Treatment involves use of injectable antibiotics and appropriate supportive care (fluid therapy, force-feeding, injectable vitamins, etc.). Treatment must usually be relatively long-term and periodic monitoring of the patient's status is essential to a favorable outcome.

Respiratory infections: Are common in snakes. They may be associated with septicemia (body-wide illness, viral infections and mouth rot. Some respiratory illness may be the consequence of stress from poor or inadequate husbandry. Signs include loud respiration, discharge and/or bubbling from the nostrils and/or mouth, coughing and open-mouth breathing. Treatment must be aggressive and at the direction of a veterinarian. A bacterial culture of the windpipe and subsequent antibiotic sensitivity testing should be undertaken to identify the offending bacteria and the appropriate antibiotic(s) to use. The veterinarian may also recommend collecting a blood sample to determine the extent of the disease and to see if there has been serious compromise to internal organs. Antibiotic therapy should be by injection and may need to be long-term, especially in severe and long-standing cases. Inhalation therapy (vaporization or nebulization) is frequently employed as part of treatment.

Eye Infections: Captive snakes occasionally suffer eye infections. Infections may be superficial or more extensive, involving the entire eye. Superficial infections may result from mild injury to the eye. Superficial infections may also become established below a retained eye cap. Infections of this type must be recognized promptly and treated aggressively to prevent involvement of the entire eye. The retained eye cap must first be removed if at all possible. Infections involving the entire eye may result from trauma to the eye or from septicemia (body-wide) infection. In the latter case, the bacteria enter the eye by way of the bloodstream. Veterinary help is essential with these cases. Treatment involves use of topical and/or injectable antibiotics. Sometimes, drugs that help to exercises the iris (the colored portion inside the eye) are used to help prevent adhesions inside the eye.

Viral infections in snakes, as a whole, are generally poorly understood. This is because viruses are extremely difficult to detect and identify. They are equally difficult or impossible to treat. Viral infections result in tumorous skin growths in many native snake species. Other viruses can cause digestive, respiratory and nervous system disease among snakes. An example is a recently recognized viral encephalitis affecting pythons and boa constrictors. Afflicted constrictor species exhibit a very gradual deterioration of the brain and eventually die. Most viruses are highly contagious. Hobbyists must be aware of this and quarantine all newly acquired snakes for at least 6-8 weeks. This involves complete isolation of new snakes and careful scrutiny of them during this period for any signs of illness. All newly acquired snakes should be thoroughly examined and evaluated by a veterinarian experienced with snakes. Blood tests may offer clues as to viral infections.

Fungal Infections: A number of fungal organisms can cause superficial and deeper infections of snakes. Most of these infections involve the skin and respiratory system. Fungal infections of the eyes are most likely to occur in snakes housed in damp, contaminated environments. Ringworm fungi that usually infect people, pets and livestock have also caused skin infections of snakes. Snakes must be housed in scrupulously clean and dry enclosures. The flooring must be easy to clean and should not be of a material that encourages fungal (mold) growth (see section on Housing). A veterinarian must examine Snakes exhibiting problems with their skin and/or eyes as soon as possible. A microbial culture and a skin biopsy may be necessary to obtain a diagnosis. Treatment of fungal diseases involves use of topical and systemic (oral and/or injectable) antifungal agents. Prevention of fungal disease involves correcting underlying problems with husbandry.

Snake Care

Housing: As a general rule, snakes require relatively little space because of their limited and nonexertional activity. Generally speaking, the size of the enclosure should allow inclusion of certain required items (discussed below) and still allow the snake adequate space to stretch out and move about. Snakes will use both the horizontal and vertical space within their enclosure if provisions are made for this activity. Aquaria or other similar glass or Plexiglas-lined enclosures are usually most suitable because they allow optimum visualization of and safety for the occupant(s), and help to maintain desirable environmental temperatures and generally high relative humidity levels. Wire-lined enclosures may afford adequate visualization of the snake but certainly cannot contribute to the maintenance of desirable environmental temperature and humidity levels. Further, such enclosures promote injuries to the rostrum (nose and surrounding tissues) as snakes repeatedly attempt to "escape" through the wire mesh. Any enclosure used must have a secure top and be escape-proof. All hinges and locks should be secure. All snakes are potential "escape artists" and many (especially the California King snakes) can escape form almost any apparently secure enclosure.

Floor Coverings and Enclosure Items: Unprinted newsprint, butcher paper, paper towels, terrycloth towels and indoor-outdoor carpeting are the most suitable materials for covering the bottom of a snake's enclosure. In fact, the first 2 materials mentioned can be cut to size and placed many layers think on to the floor of the enclosure. When the top layer(s) are soiled, they can be easily removed, leaving clean, dry paper. This makes cleaning of the enclosure very quick and efficient. If indoor-outdoor carpeting is used, it is best to have 2-3 pieces cut to the correct dimensions. This way, replacements can be used while the soiled piece is cleaned and disinfected. Under no circumstances should pea gravel, kitty litter, crushed corncob material or wood shavings be used. These are unquestionable more visually aesthetic than most of the materials mentioned above; however, they are unsuitable because they trap moisture and filth, provide unlimited "hiding places" for external parasites, and make enclosures very difficult to clean. Furthermore, these types of particulate matter are easily and inadvertently eaten while the snake is feeding. This can cause mechanical injury to or obstruction of the digestive tract. Various objects should be included within a snake's enclosure that occupies its vertical area. These include sturdy branches of various hardwood trees or those fabricated from artificial materials, driftwood, grapevine, hanging ropes, and shelves situated along the sides of the enclosure.

Visual Security: It is very important to provide some privacy for a captive snake. Many snakes will not feed without the privacy afforded by some degree of visual security. This can be accomplished by providing a "hide box" into which the snake can retreat when it feeds or at other times when privacy is desired. Visual security can also be provided by the use and strategic placement of silk artificial plants (and trees if the enclosure is large enough to accommodate them). Silk plants are visually pleasing and easy to clean and disinfect. They require minimal maintenance, help to augment the relative humidity level of the enclosure if the foliage is frequently misted, and can complement a snake's ability to camouflage itself, thereby providing visual security.

Climatic Considerations: Tropical snakes kept in captivity (boa constrictors, pythons, etc) require relatively warm temperatures and high relative humidity. Daytime temperatures should range between 80 and 85° F. Nighttime temperatures can fall between 70-75 F without creating problems for most snakes. Native American snakes do well when maintained at 70-80° F. Relatively large enclosures can be supplied with heat lamps or heaters equipped with thermostats, whereas small enclosures may be adequately heated by placing a heating pad directly underneath them. Exposed heat sources must be shielded to protect snakes from serious burns as they attempt to warm themselves by coiling next to them. Large and small enclosures should also provide the snake a focal (spot) source of warmth. Small snakes should be offered a hot rock. Large snakes can use one or more well-protected and waterproofed heating pads. These appliances allow the snake direct, but safe, contact with the heat source, which helps to raise their body temperature. This allows the snake to be more active and increases the rate of digestion. Check these appliances frequently for malfunction and periodically check the snake for evidence of burns because snakes generally do not move away from heat-generating appliances even if they are being severely burned.

Lighting: Ideally, it would be advantageous for all captive reptiles to be housed in such a way that they could be exposed to and benefit form direct, unfiltered sunlight during the daylight hours every day. This represents the healthiest and most natural situation. Unfortunately, hobbyists can rarely fulfill this set of circumstances because it is neither practical nor possible. The next best solution is to use an artificial ultraviolet light source rather than fluorescent or incandescent light bulbs. One or more Vitalites (Duro-Lite Lamps, Duro-Test Copr, Lyndhurst, NJ 07071) should be used to illuminate the enclosure during the daylight hours. To approximate a natural photo-period, it is best to supply 1-12 hours of daylight and 12-14 hours of darkness each day, with a gradual increase in the number of hours of light in spring and a gradual decrease in the fall and winter months.

Water: should be provided at all times. Most snakes drink infrequently but use a suitable sized container for immersing themselves and soaking. Another advantage for including a relatively large water container is that water evaporation contributes to the relative humidity of the enclosure. This is especially true if the enclosure is glass or Plexiglas-lined. The water container should be roomy enough to allow adequate soaking and heavy enough so it can not be easily overturned. Water containers must be thoroughly and regularly cleaned. Failure to do so encourages bacterial proliferation. Snakes drinking and soaking in the water soon become ill. Use Rocall-D (Winthrop Veterinary, NY, NY 10016) to disinfect the snake's enclosure and furnishings at least once every 2-4 weeks.

Snake Health

The key to optimum health and longevity of captive snakes is the pursuit of sound husbandry and feeding practices. Equally important are the hobbyist's awareness of the potential health problems that can afflict captive snakes and the vital role of the experienced veterinarian in diagnosing and treating them. Snake enthusiasts must make educated and informed decisions when selecting a pet or additions to their collections. Remember that newly acquired snakes often have one or more health problems. A thorough veterinary evaluation (physical examination, fecal exam, blood and microbiologic work-ups) of the new acquisition is always recommended. Such an assessment determines the true (rather than the perceived) health status of the snake. A veterinary evaluation of this type should be undertaken once yearly as the basis for a preventive medicine program. The importance of periodic, routine veterinary exams for disease prevention cannot be over-emphasized. When disease is suspected or obvious, veterinary assistance is mandatory to thoroughly evaluate the patient, arrive at a diagnosis as quickly as possible, and promptly institute appropriate treatment so that diseases are not allowed to progress unchecked. The veterinarian will need answers to a number of routine but very important questions when you present your snake for a routine health check or because of a suspected medical problem. This list includes the following questions and instructions:

• From what source was the snake acquired? ( pet shop, private party, etc.)
• Do you have any knowledge about previous owner(s) of the snake?
• Do you have other snakes? If so, how many, and of which species?
• What are the housing arrangements for the snakes? Any recent acquisitions?
• Do you routinely quarantine new acquisitions?
• Describe the dimensions of the enclosure in which this snake is housed.
• Of what materials is the enclosure constructed?
• What floor coverings are used in the enclosure?
• What other items are used in the enclosure?
• Describe the heat sources used in the enclosure.
• What is the environmental temperature within the enclosure?
• Is an artificial UV light source used?
• Describe the water container/soak pit used.
• Are hiding places provided for the snake?
• What is the snake fed?
• Is the snake fed live, stunned, freshly killed or thawed frozen prey?
• How often is the snake fed?
• Has the snake regurgitated recently?
• When did the snake last defecate?
• When did the snake last shed?
• Was the shed complete (in one piece) or in pieces?

· Snake Feeding

· Before specific feeding recommendations are made, it is important to make several points and cautions regarding the feeding of captive snakes. The most respected herpetologists and experienced snake hobbyists all agree that captive snakes should be fed dead or incapacitated prey whenever possible. This is because such prey cannot injure the feeding snake. Providing killed prey that has been frozen is convenient and economical for the hobbyists. Snakes may be induced to eat thawed, frozen prey animals by clipping hair from the coat of a live rat and rolling the proposed food in it just before feeding. Though freezing, thawing and subsequent feeding of whole prey animals is a common practice among hobbyists and herpetologists, some experts believe that such food sources should be "gutted" (eviscerated) before they are frozen. This greatly reduces the possibility of generalized bacterial contamination of the carcass. To replace those nutrients within the viscera that would otherwise be lost, the hobbyist can place a gelatin capsule filled with a vitamin/mineral/amino acid supplement (Nekton-Rep: Nekton Products, W. Germany) into the body cavity before feeding the thawed prey animal to the snake.

· Rodents (rats and mice in particular) left unattended and unobserved within an enclosure with a supposedly hungry snake sometimes turn on the "diner" and inflict serious bite wounds on it. These "dinner becomes the diner" incidents are most likely to occur when a snake is ill or otherwise uninterested in feeding. If snakes do not accept freshly killed or well thawed frozen prey, the live prey must be stunned so that it is sufficiently incapacitated and unable to injure the snake. Live rodents can be placed in a paper bag, which is then swiftly slammed down on a countertop to stun the rodent inside. If such an incapacitated animal is offered to a snake that is generally accustomed to receiving its food in this fashion and the snake refuses it, the prey animal can be killed and frozen, and offered at a later time. If it is not possible to offer anything other than live and fully conscious prey for a snake to successfully feed, the encounter must be carefully supervised. If a snake shows no interest in feeding within 10-15 minutes after the prey has been introduced, the prey should be removed and all of the possible reasons for the snake's lack of interest in feeding should be investigated. (See section on Failure to Voluntarily Feed). If other similar attempts to feed the snake within the next 1-2 weeks are equally unsuccessful, veterinary help should be sought at once.

· Infections: Snakes acquire a large number of infectious areas from the foods they consume, especially because of the snake's habit of feeding on whole prey items. It is not practical or possible to ensure that all prey animals are absolutely free of disease-causing agents. However, prey animals that are to be fed to captive snakes should appear healthy and come from a reliable source. Extreme caution should be exercised when feeding snakes. This is especially important if a given snake is expected to be hungry and if human-snake interaction is limited to feeding times. An overzealous and hungry snake is very likely to strike at a person immediately after the enclosure is opened and as the prey item in introduced. Large snakes can be especially treacherous and dangerous at these times because of their ability to overcome and overpower their keepers. Hobbyists and even a few expert herpetologists have been seriously injured or even killed at such times.

· Great caution must also be exercised when feeding more than one snake within an enclosure. Serious problems result when 2 snakes choose to prey on the same food item. If one snake attaches to the front of a mouse and another attacks at the tail end of the same mouse, neither snake will surrender its hold. Both snakes will continue to feed and eventually one will consume the other! When 2 or more snakes are housed within the same enclosure, they should be fed individually by holding the prey animal in long forceps or tongs.

· Captive snakes as a group usually do not suffer from major nutritional deficiencies, unlike the majority of reptiles kept in captivity. This is largely because pet snakes are allowed to feed as they do in the wild, on whole prey items. The prey species fed to captive snakes are undoubtedly different from those present in the snake's natural environment. Further, the relatively narrow diversity of prey animals that can be fed to captive snakes due to practical and economic considerations is in contrast to the wide variety of prey animals potentially available to wild-living snakes. In spite of these major differences, the incidence of malnutrition and malnutrition-related problems among captive snakes is quite low; markedly contrasting the usual situate with most captive reptiles and their seemingly limitless malnutrition-related disease problems. The potential for malnutrition and malnutrition-related disease tends to be greatest among juvenile snakes fed primarily very immature vertebrate (rodents, birds, reptiles, amphibians, etc.) and invertebrate prey species (insects primarily). These food items are not as nutrient-rich as their more adult counterparts.

· Feeding schedules for captive snakes vary with the age, species, size, condition and specific requirements of the individual. Generally speaking, pet snakes are usually fed once every 1-2 weeks. Juveniles and adults for which a relatively rapid growth rate is desired can be fed more frequently, providing that environmental temperatures are warm enough to allow complete and thorough digestion. Older snakes are usually fed less frequently, often once every 3-6 weeks. The number of prey animals offered at each feeding is determined by the same factors discussed above with regard to frequency of feeding. Overfeeding must be avoided because of the risk of obesity. Too-frequent feedings and allowing a captive snake to consume multiple prey animals at each feeding encourages rapid growth. It also leads to obesity in older animals. The relative difficulty in procuring food limits this phenomenon in the wild.

· Snake Shedding

· Shedding (Ecdysis) is the process by which snakes periodically discard the outer portion of their skin. This activity is under hormonal control and associated with growth. Most snakes shed their skin 4-8 times per year. The frequency of shedding depends upon many factors, including environmental temperatures, frequency of feeding, amount fed at each feeding, and activity level. Young snakes shed more frequently than older ones because growth is relatively rapid in the first few years of life. Healthy snakes usually have little or no difficulty with shedding and tend to shed their skins in one entire piece. Exceptions to this include snakes with injuries to the skin and/or scales resulting in scarring, and snakes housed in enclosures with sub-optimal temperature and/or relative humidity levels. The stresses associated with shedding can be substantial. Sick snakes, those suffering from malnutrition, or those whose health has been directly or indirectly compromised by poor husbandry experience delayed and incomplete sheds. These snakes tend to shed their skins in pieces. In fact, many of the pieces remain adhered to the underlying skin and eyes (retained eye caps).

· The shedding process is preceded by a period of relative inactivity. This period usually lasts 1-2 weeks, during which time the eyes begin to exhibit a dull, bluish-white appearance. During this period, the snake's vision is impaired, which causes them to be rather unpredictable and sometimes aggressive. The skin during this period tends to have an overall dull appearance. The underlying new skin is soft and vulnerable to damage while the outer layers prepare to sough away. The eyes again become transparent after 7-15 days and shedding commences. A snake will make use of any rough objects or surfaces within its enclosure to help shed the skin. Shedding commences with the skin of the head. Once the snake has loosened and dislodged the skin surrounding the mouth and over-lying the rostrum (nose), it then passes between rough objects that can trap the loose skin and hold it as the snake glides out of the "old" skin. Discarded skin appears dry and tube-like or moist and crumpled in a solitary heap. Many snakes defecate after a successful shed, or consume large quantities of water.

· Snake Reproduction

· Snakes produce offspring in 2 basic ways: The first involves development of the fertilized eggs within the body of the female. When the embryos are fully developed, the offspring are born, appearing like miniature adults. Boa constrictors, water and garter snakes, and rattlesnakes are live bearing species and are considered ovoviviparous. The second method involves deposition of oblong, leathery-shelled eggs within the environment, where the eggs incubate. At the completion of embryonic development, the eggs hatch, producing miniature adults. Pythons and rat and mild snakes are egg layers, and are considered oviparous. In either case, the newborn or newly hatched can fend for themselves and receive no parental nurturing.

· Many snake species readily mate in captivity: One mating may result in up to 3 clutches of eggs or 3 "litters" of live young. This is because sperm can be stored within the reproductive tract of the female after insemination. The proper pairing of snakes according to age and sex is essential if reproduction in captivity is to be successful. Sexing of snakes can be difficult because males generally resemble females. Male pythons and boa constrictors have a spur on each side of the vent. Some females have spurs but they are usually smaller than those of males. These observations can be misleading at times. Snakes under 18 inches long can usually be sexed by exerting pressure on the tissues surrounding the vent. Male snakes have paired hemipenes (elongated, spurred structures used during copulation) that can be extruded with this maneuver. The widely accepted method for sexing most snakes over 18 inches in length requires specialized sexing probes. These elongated, blunt-tipped instruments are gently inserted into the vent and directed toward the tail. The probe penetrates only a short distance in females and a much longer distance in males. Only experienced handlers should attempt this procedure.

· Artificial Incubation of Snake Eggs: Artificial incubation of fertile snake eggs is quite easy. A small amount of water is added to an empty Styrofoam picnic chest. Then, a thick layer of peat moss, sphagnum moss, vermiculite, shredded newspaper or paper towels is added. The eggs are carefully introduced into this medium. Slightly moistening the incubation material also helps prevent the eggs' drying out. Too much moisture, however, promotes formation of mold, which will destroy the eggs' contents. The relative humidity required to incubate snake eggs falls within the range of 75-85%. The covered Styrofoam chest is then placed on a heating pad, which is set on its lowest heat setting. The ideal temperature range for most incubation lies between 78 to 84° F. The average incubation period for most snakes ranges between 55 and 60 days.

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