Monitor Lizard FAQ

What is the aim of this FAQ?

This document contains information regarding of monitor lizards in captivity. I will try to persuade you to think about your ability to keep a monitor in captivity. This FAQ will also try to prevent you from getting in over your head, and helping you make a responsible decision on which species to keep if you decide to keep a monitor. Furthermore this FAQ serves as a means to provide the best possible information on captive monitor husbandry. I will try to contrast different husbandry techniques in order for YOU to determine which is best.

A lot of information available on monitor lizards is misleading. The pet trade is often responsible for spreading this inaccurate information about monitors. Pet stores will sell baby Nile monitors and tell the customer it will only grow to the size of the cage. They will tell customers it will be "dog tame" and a fun pet. They will sell a 30 gallon aquarium and tell the customer this is the biggest cage the monitor will need. They will tell you all the nile monitor will eat for the rest of its life is crickets. They will tell you monitors do not need much heat above room temperature. They will tell you anything they need to tell you in order to make a sell. All of this information is inaccurate and you will end up with a dead monitor. Monitor lizards, of any species, really are not for the beginner reptile keeper. The smaller species, such as varanus acanthurus or "ackies" , are great for first time monitors keepers. The larger species, such as varanus salvator or varanus niloticus, although cute little lizards as hatchlings, grow at tremendous rates and can easily be 4'+ by the end of their first year and can eventually grow upwards of 6'. There is no guarantee they will become tame no matter how much you work with them, and even a bite from an average sized monitor can cause severe damage not to mention an incredible amount of pain. Monitors will often use their tail as a whip for their primary defense. Their powerful limbs accompanied by their very sharp claws can also do some considerable damage not only to you, but to your belongings in the case of an escape. These animals are not cheap to keep as well. Their caging and food can easily reach over a $1000 a year so it is best to plan ahead.

Although I have done an incredible amount of research over the last two years and have been helped by others in writing this FAQ, this is by no means an end all document. I urge you to do your own research before purchasing a monitor. This is the most accurate information I can provide you, but that does not necessarily make it true. Monitor husbandry is relatively new and is continuing to evolve. Thus, what is said here today may not be true tomorrow. However, I will do my best to make this a living document and keep the information as up to date as possible.

Most species of monitors commonly kept in captivity can be kept in very similar ways. Their basic requirements are the same although some variation does exist. I will try to treat as many species as I can in their own sections, but this is based on the cooperation and information of others who keep them. However almost all the information gathered here can be applied to any species.

INTRODUCTION

What is a monitor?

Monitor is the common name for lizards belonging in the family Varanidea. All monitors, as of now, belong to the genus varanus but they may soon be split into smaller groups including the Odatria group (Bennett 1998). Virtually all monitors are similar in appearance with the main variation being size. As of now there is still some confusion in the taxonomy of monitors lizards and considerable work needs to be done in the future.

How many species of Monitors are there?

Nobody knows for sure. As of now there are around 50 recognized species depending on who you talk to. However more are constantly being identified and there are many known yet undescribed species.

How large do monitors get?

Monitors vary an incredible amount in size. The smallest is V. brevicauda which only reaches a size of 23cm (Bennett 1998). Determining the largest monitor is a bit trickier as it depends on your definition of largest. The komodo Dragon (V. komodoensis) is definitely the largest in bulk and near the longest as well. There are reports of komodo dragons being upwards of 9' although this may be unusual. This species is endangered and luckily is not available to the public. The longest monitor available in captivity is the crocodile monitor (V. salvadorii) and they too can reach upwards of 9' but the majority of that length is tail and they do not reach anywhere near the bulk of a komodo dragon. Two other large monitors, the water monitor (V. salvator) and nile monitor (V. niloticus) are also available and commonly kept in captivity.

How fast do monitors grow?

Monitors grow at incredible speeds if they are provided the proper conditions. Heat and the amount of food given will affect a monitor's growth rate. A savannah monitor I have grew from 7" to 44" in a year and then grew from 44" to 48" in the next six months and has not grown since. Monitors grow very rapidly in their first year, under ideal conditions, and then slow down until they reach their maximum size.

How long do monitors live?

Due to inaccurate records and the majority of animals being imported it is hard to say how long monitors live. They certainly can live to be over ten years of age and I have heard of water monitors being kept for over 20 years in captivity although I do not have proof of this. Regardless of the details, a monitor lizard is a long commitment and one should plan on it living for well over 10 years.

PURCHASING

What do I need to consider before buying a monitor?

Before you purchase a monitor you need to make sure you have fully researched the animals requirements and have a proper enclosure already set up. Some cities have laws banning or regulating the keeping large reptiles in captivity. You should check with the local law enforcement agencies in your area if any apply to the keeping of monitors.

The monitor itself should be active and alert. If an animal is "tame" or lethargic that can be a sign poor health. The monitor's eyes should be bright, clear, and opened wide. It should actively flick its tongue as it moves around. Its nose and mouth should be clear of mucus. The vent should also be clean. The base of the tail should be round and firm, there should not be any protruding bones. Healthy monitors often do not want to be held especially hatchlings. They will try to run, whip their tail, defecate, and lastly bite you. These are things healthy monitors do and if you have a problem with this do not get a monitor. Not all monitors are as feisty as this but this is what one should expect. Look under species accounts to find which species might be better suited for your needs. Often times you can find tame older monitors but make sure they are kept in good conditions with adequate temps. "Tame" monitors at a pet store often turn out to be nothing more than cold monitors and are "monsters" when given a proper set up

How much can I expect to pay?

This depends on the species. Savannah monitors (v. exanthematicus) and Nile monitor (V. niloticus) are heavily imported and I have seen them for sale at $15. Captive Bred species command a much higher price but are worth it. They are healthier, less stressed, and should not contain parasites. Also by buying captive bred monitors you are helping alleviate the stresses on wild population. Be careful though and ask for proof (photos of eggs and the animals hatching) of the animal being captive bred as it is common practice for dealers to misrepresent their stock in order to sell it faster. Virtually all Indonesian and African monitors are imported although there are a few exceptions.

Australian monitors are all captive bred due to a ban on the exportation of Australian wildlife. The price for Australian monitors range from about $250 for yellow ackies (V. acanthurus brachyurus) to well over a thousand for the less common. However many Australian monitors belong to the subgenus odatria (dwarf monitors). This does not mean they are small by any means. The most common (V. acanthurus) can reach length up to 3', although 2' is much more common. Remember you get what you pay for.

Is there anything else I need to buy?

When you purchase a monitor you should already have an enclosure set up. This includes the cage, substrate, heat lamps, any supplemental heating device, hide spots, a basking spot, water bowl and any decorations. A digital thermometer is also good to have around and one with a probe can be purchased for under $20. A good book on monitors should also be purchased if you have not already. Look under misc. for books I recommend. You may also want to purchase some leather gloves, such as welder gloves, for when you handle your monitor.

How do I transport my monitors?

Hopefully you will not have to transport your monitors but if you do here are some methods. For smaller monitors I have used small burlap bags similar to potato sacks or pillow cases. I usually put some moss or substrate in with the monitor and tie up the end. For larger monitors it may be possible to transport them in dog carriers or other such devices. For aggressive animals you can duck tape the mouth closed to prevent the monitor from biting. THIS IS NOT FOR SHIPPING. These methods are for short trasportation such as to and from the vet etc. Remember these animals should not be left in the sun, as they have no way of escaping heat while being transported. Extreme cold should also be avoided. A small 48-hour heat pack can be placed under the monitor if it is being transported in cold conditions.

HOUSING

What important factors must I consider to house my monitor?

Before purchasing a monitor one must have an adequate enclosure set up for it. The enclosure is a very important part of proper monitor husbandry. The best enclosures will be insulated to hold both heat and humidity. A good substrate is needed for burrowing. The enclosure must be large enough for adequate hide areas; a water bowl, basking area and you must be able to provide the proper thermal gradient. For many species the best type of enclosure is a trough or stock tank, which are available at many feed stores. They come in a multiple of sizes with the largest I have seen being 8'x3'which can suit the needs of an averaged sized monitor.

How large does the enclosure need to be?

The best answer to this is as big as humanly possible. Remember in this case bigger is better. That said there are minimums that a monitor should be kept in. The best rule of thumb to follow is the enclosure should be twice as long as the monitor and as wide as the monitor is long. For instance a four foot monitor should be kept in a cage that is AT LEAST 8' long by 4' wide. Again this is the minimum and if you can go larger than by all means do so. You want enough space so that your monitor can move around comfortably and have access to all temperatures in the thermal gradient you provide. Due to the rapid growth of monitors it is best to plan ahead with enclosure size. The most economical and practical cage would be one large enough to house an adult no matter what size the animal is now.

What type of enclosure can I use for monitors?

There are many styles of enclosures sutable for monitors. If you must use a smaller tank for a hatchling than required for an adult there are several options available. The most obvious are the glass cages manufactured for reptiles. You can also use glass aquariums for fish although you will have to design a secure lid for these. With either one of these the screen top should be eliminated. Screening not only causes excessive heat loss but it will also dehydrate the cage and thus the monitor very rapidly. This can cause many health problems one of the most obvious is retained shedding. You can replace the screening with plexi-glass relatively cheaply. You can also custom order a cage or build one, but if you go this route you might as well build one or order one that is large enough to house an adult.

For dwarf monitors to mid-sized monitors (no bigger than 4' in total length) the best type of cage I have used are troughs or stock tanks. These can be purchased from feed or agriculture stores. They can be bought in a variety of sizes the minimum size for even the smallest monitor would be one that is 4' long by 2' wide. For these you will have to fabricate your own lid. The best lid for these is a sheet (or two) of (painted trough in room)

plexi-glass. For ventilation you can drill a series of holes near one end. The holes should be drilled above the cool end of the enclosure. You want to have enough ventilation to provide for an exchange of air but not too much such that air can freely escape the enclosure.

One thing to avoid is a cage made from screen. These types of cages will hold your monitor only long enough for him to completely shred it up and thus escape. Also cages with large screened lids should also be avoided. These types of cages can create problems with regulating temperatures and dehydration.

When purchasing a cage you should also keep in mind whether you want a front opening cage, often with sliding glass doors, or a cage which opens from the top. The main advantage of a front opening cage is they can often be stacked thus saving room. With keeping monitors this advantage is far outweighed by the disadvantages associated with these cages. Front opening cages make it difficult to provide a deep substrate because they often only have a liter dam that is only a few inches high at best. If the cage is deep enough (over 2' in depth) then you can put a few inches of substrate toward the front and then create a hill of substrate toward the back which is deep enough to allow your monitor to burrow. This however limits your monitor's choices of where to burrow to where you have made the hill. Another problem with front opening cages with sliding glass doors is the substrate will often get in the siding door track. This makes it difficult and sometimes impossible to open the door. This can be remedied by having a door that swings up or down on a hinge, however the substrate problem will still be present.

What type of enclosure can I use for larger monitors?

Depending on the species, you have a few choices. For the larger monitors you are very limited to what you can build or you can dedicate an entire room to the monitor. A relatively cheap enclosure can be built out of plywood and 2x4s. A non-toxic waterproofing coat should be added to the wood to prevent it from warping. Marine resin (used to repair fiberglass boats) is an inexpensive and effective way to water proof the wood. One must follow the directions carefully and be sure to mix the hardener and resin accurately. You should also provide plenty of time for the resin to dry and do not place an animal in the enclosure until you can no longer smell any fumes from the resin. Another popular material for building enclosures is melamine. This is basically particle board with a thin plastic like coating. Personally I do not like this material for monitor enclosures. For one it is very heavy and hard to work with. Second the plastic coating does little to waterproof the enclosure and eventually the particle board will begin to deteriorate. I have heard of other problems associated with use of this material as well.

Do monitors only grow to the size of their enclosures?

No, this is a myth. Monitors will continue to grow regardless of cage size and in too small of a cage this can cause serious health problems. The monitor will not be able to thermo-regulate and can easily overheat. There have been cases where monitors spines have become crooked from growing in a cage that was too small. Besides being cruel, a monitor will more than likely die if kept in a cage which is too small. The cage should be large enough to allow for plenty of choices in movement and hiding areas.

Can monitors escape from enclosures easily?

Monitors are excellent escape artists. Their intelligence combined with their power makes it possible to exploit any weak link in your enclosure. They will work away at a small hole until it is large enough for them to escape out of. They also will remember how they escaped, and if the enclosure is not improved, they will escape again.

What furnishings need to go into an enclosure?

This depends on the type of monitor. However there are three basic needs of all monitors. They will need a basking area (this will be covered more below), hide areas, and a water bowl. Some monitors, such as water monitors (V. salvator) may benefit from a large pond in which they can swim around. Such ponds require extensive filtration and or daily water changes, as the monitor will often defecate in the water. Smaller water bowls should always have a fresh supply of water. For hatchling monitors be sure not to fill the water too deep as there is a potential for them to drown. Adequate hide areas are important as well. There should be multiple options of hide areas across the thermal gradient so as not to force your monitor to hide in too cool or too warm of a spot. Monitors will often utilize their burrows as a hiding area but other options should also be available. Hiding areas will cut down on the amount of stress placed on a monitor in captivity.

Other types of furnishing to provide are hollow logs, large branches to climb, and perhaps rocks. You can also decorate the enclosure with silk plants or even live plants. However (Ackie enclosure with water bowl, rock, basking platform, log,
hallow log/cork cark, and clay statues)

the monitor will often destroy small live plants very rapidly and silk foliage will often be rearranged by the monitor. Hollow logs can be useful both as a hiding area and for some species a nesting site.

What type of substrate should be used?

The best substrate for many monitors is plain dirt. You can dig up your own dirt; this makes it both free and unlimited. Just about any type of dirt can be used and will be suitable for burrowing. However dirt which is heavy in clay should be avoided if possible. Again this is simply for burrowing and an adequate nesting substrate may be something entirely different.

Another good substrate, particularly for Indonesian monitors is cypress mulch and leaf litter. This substrate will hold moisture well and will allow for burrowing. It is also very easy to clean. The only problem with cypress mulch is its availability. It is impossible to find in some areas however Pro Exotics offers large bags of it for sale and they will ship it.

What temperature should their environment be?

The most accurate word describing temperature for monitors is choice. You do not want to force your monitor to use certain temps but rather you want to create a thermal gradient with a range of usable temps for your monitor. The range of temps I have been most successful at are from a 130-150 degree basking spot down to about 70-75 degrees on the cool end. Remember the basking spot is just that a spot. It should be about the size of the monitor's body. A too small of an area and the monitor will not be able to use the heat properly. A too large of an area and the proper range of temps will not be provided and your monitor may not be able to escape the heat.

The easiest and most effective way of making a basking area for many of the smaller species of monitors is with a multilevel plywood stack. Basically its 2x4's separating plywood sheets. This allows for different temps on different levels. Place the stack (Sand monitor using basking platform)

right below your heat source and you are done.

The best heat source I have used for creating a high basking spot and a steep thermal gradient is halogen floodlights. I have used many types of reptile heat lamps, ceramic heat emitters, heat panels and none are as effective as halogen lighting. You can purchase these bulbs at any hardware store. You should purchase a bulb that is between 45 watts and 75 watts depending on your needs. Most people assume that a higher wattage bulb will produce more heat and thus they go for high wattage bulbs. However rather than buying higher wattage bulbs all one has to do is move the bulb closer or farther away from the basking spot to achieve the ideal temps. Higher wattage bulbs heat the air more and thus more air is escaping the enclosure. This warm air is humid (hopefully) and is replaced by dry cool air. This leads to the dehydration of the cage and eventually the monitor. This is why lower wattage bulbs tend to be better for heating an enclosure.

For larger monitors a bank (two bulbs next to each other) of bulbs may be necessary. This will produce a larger basking spot under which the entire body of the monitor will fit. Again these should be low wattage bulbs.

How do I regulate air temperature?

The easiest way to regulate the temps is through a combination of ventilation and your basking light. In my 5' x2'x2' trough a have a single 50-watt halogen light bulb. The bulb is roughly 6" from the basking spot. The temps range from 150 degrees under the basking spot to 76 degrees on the cool side of the trough. This is my only heat source.

Basking bulbs work very well in smaller cages and well-insulated cages. However if you have a very large enclosure and are in a cool climate, then you may need additional heating. For heating the air I recommend radiant heat panels. They are very effective and last for many years. Heat pads can also be used to provide a warm place for your monitor to lay.

What lighting does a monitor need?

Some people believe it is important to have a day/night cycle for monitors. These people believe improper light cycles cause monitors to stress and become unhealthy. If done properly however this simply is not true. I look at it as 24 hour heat not 24 hour lighting, and this maximizes the choices available to the monitor. It is not only important to have adequate hide areas available for this to work but it is also important to have a proper substrate in which your monitor can burrow. Monitors are on their own schedule and can care less about your schedule and their lighting schedule. They will retire to their homes (burrows) around the same time regardless of the light. If you ever look into a burrow of your monitor it is very, very dark. I tend to be able to only see in inch or two into the burrow. To them, it is night.

If you decide to have a day/night cycle then you must provide some sort of supplemental heat at night. This can be through a ceramic heat emitter, a radiant heat panel, or perhaps a reptile night bulb. As for how long the day cycle should be and how long the night cycle should be, it really does not matter. Your monitor will go to sleep when it wants not when you tell it. Besides, for it to be natural you would have to have the same exact day/night cycle from the exact local your monitor was collected. This information is more than likely next to impossible to obtain. Furthermore, you would then have to adjust the day/night cycle every couple of days. Even after you did all this, your monitor still will not care.

What about UV light?

There is no available information regarding the benefits or drawbacks of providing UV lighting for monitors. Most lights available that produce UVA or UVB produce miniscule amounts of these rays. I have raised monitors with both UVA and UVB and some without UVA and UVB lighting and have not been able to determine any differences. If you want to provide this type of lighting go ahead but it is not necessary.

What's the best way to keep the enclosure clean?

You should spot clean your monitors enclosure every time you see feces. This only takes a few seconds a day and is not difficult. Every so often I use a shop-vac and suck up the top layer of dirt in my monitor's enclosures. If you do not use dirt or do not have a very deep substrate then you may have to change out the entire substrate as it becomes soiled. You should always have fresh clean water available to your monitors and this usually means changing the water very often. Monitors seem to get incredible joy of washing themselves off in their water bowl, especially after you have recently changed it.

FEEDING

What can I feed my monitor in captivity?

In captivity the most common prey offered to monitors are crickets and mice. The larger species of monitors can easily take rats as well. Various other insects can also be offered. Hissing roaches are becoming more popular due partially to their large adult size and their prolific reproduction. Superworms, meal worms, silk worms, stick insects, fish, crustaceans and snails are also commonly offered.

Whenever possible one should offer whole prey rather than any processed diet. Dog food is offered by some people however it is my belief this is not a good food source. There is no roughage in dog food and this leads to runny stools. Another diet being experimented with is a ground turkey based diet. Again there is a problem with roughage.

How often does a monitor need to eat?

This depends on many factors. A growing monitor should be feed everyday. For hatchlings I recommend feeding enough crickets or other insects, of appropriate sizes, until the monitor no longer shows interest eating. Then throw in a few more so it has something to eat if it becomes hungry later in the day. The size of the prey should be adjusted to the size of the monitor as it grows. Prey should not be wider than the width of the monitor's head. Smaller prey items are easier and more efficient for a monitor to digest. As your monitor begins to slow down in growth, feeding should also slow down so that the monitor does not become obese. Feedings can be every other day and the amount of food should be less.

Some argue that feeding mice can be harmful and cause impactions in the digestive tract of the monitor. Impactions only happen as a result of poor husbandry, not due to diet. Dehydration and inadequate temps are the causes of impactions. Monitors have very effective digestive systems and when they have access to proper heat (130 degrees +) their metabolism becomes high enough to digest anything. Proper hydration is also important for digestion. If the monitor becomes dehydrated its urates will become large and solidified which make them difficult to pass.

How do I give food to my monitor safely?

Most monitors will accept live or dead prey without hesitation. The easiest way to feed them would be to throw the prey into the cage. If you must jiggle pre-killed prey in front of your monitor then you should not do it by hand. The monitor can easily miss the food or mistake your hand for food. You should get a long pair of tongs and offer the food from them. Monitors also remember where their last meal came from. If it came from your hand then the next time you stick your hand in their cage they may think it has food and you will get bit.

Should I feed live or pre-killed food?

This is really up to you. Insects should be offered live as there is no reason not too and monitors tend to ignore dead insects. However in my experience monitors will readily take pre-killed or live rodents. Live food offers a chance for your monitor to get exercise while trying to capture the prey. However you should not leave live prey in the cage for long periods. Mice can get hungry and start to bite your monitor. I have never dealt with this problem as my monitors eat their food very rapidly and if your monitor does not eat right away it might be a sign of improper husbandry.

What about vitamin supplements?

Growing monitors need lots of calcium to support bone growth. A good quality source of calcium is needed while growing. The two brands I use are Repti-Cal and Miner-all. It is especially important to dust insects with a calcium supplement. Monitors on a mouse based diet do not need as much calcium supplementation as those on an insect based diet. However remember that pinkie and fuzzy mice are not a good source of calcium.

TYPES

Savannah monitors are often labeled beginner monitors. THEY ARE NOT. They have been assigned this label for a variety of reasons. First, they are readily available and very inexpensive. They only cost importers less than $5.00 each and are imported by the thousands. Savannah monitors also have a reputation for becoming tame. However, of the hundreds of thousands of imported Savannah monitors how many survive never mind becoming tame? The answer is very few. Not because they are fragile animals nor is it because they do not make good captives. It is because they fall into the hands of beginners, who are not ready for taking care of a (Captive Savannah monitor foraging in a field.)

monitor lizard. Often times these monitors are fresh imports who are mal-nourished, carry parasites, and need to be nursed back to health. Virtually all Savannah monitors are imported, so if somebody is offering a CB Savannah monitor ask them for proof. If you are a beginner get a captive bred monitor, such as an ackie, it will save you a ton of headaches.

Savannah monitors reach a moderate size for a monitor. Males can reach over 4' in length while females are typically smaller. They are a heavily bodied monitor and care must be taken that they are not overfed and become obese. Young Savannah monitors can be fed mostly an insect diet. They will readily take crickets, worms, snails, and roaches. Be sure to dust insects with a good calcium supplement such as repto-cal or miner-all. As they increase in size they may become less interested in the smaller insects and it may become more practical to feed mice.

Hatchlings can be housed in a 55-gallon aquarium. However these monitors will grow extremely fast and you will soon need to be thinking about larger accommodations. When my Savannah monitor was 14" I moved him into a 6'x2'x2' cage. An adult should be housed in a 8'x4' but larger is better. Savannah monitor love to burrow so a deep substrate is needed and dirt is preferred. There should be a basking spot of 130+ degrees and the ambient on the cool side should be around 75.

Ridge-tailed monitors or ackies are in my opinion one of the best beginner monitors available. The high cost of the monitor itself often turns beginners off, but I encourage you to consider them. In the long run the Ackies will be cheaper for many reasons. They are all captive born so they should not have to be treated for parasites which means no expensive vet visits. They eat less amounts of food than larger monitors and can be fed crickets their entire life. They only attain a relative small size and do not require large (Ackie basking)

expensive enclosures.

Ackies are generally easy going monitors who do not mind interactions, although there are plenty of exceptions. The best advantage of ackies and other "dwarf monitors" is being able to house a trio or pair of them in a relatively small enclosure. You will be able to learn a great deal about monitor behavior and monitor needs, which will provide essential information if you decide to keep other species.

Ackies reach a small size in the monitor world. They tend to get around 2' although many are smaller and some larger. Ackies can live on a diet of insects their entire life. I feed almost exclusively crickets with the rare pinky mouse as a treat. They will readily take worms, roaches, and other insects as well. Be sure to dust insects with a good calcium supplement such as repto-cal or miner-all.

I prefer to try and keep my monitors in the same cage throughout their lives. That said, I have keep my trio in a 5'x2'x2' trough. A 6'x2'x2' would be best but slightly smaller will suffice. You can put them in a smaller cage if you must, but they grow rapidly and will need a larger enclosure in about 6 months. Ackies like most monitors love to burrow so a deep substrate is needed and dirt is preferred. A minimum of 12" is recommended but if you can provide more then by all means do so. The substrate should be moist but not wet. This is important because if kept in a too dry of cage you will experience many problems due to retained sheds. This includes toes falling off. There should be a basking spot of 130+ degrees and the ambient on the cool side should be around 75. A water bowl should be provided and a few branches for them to climb on will no hurt either.

(Two ackies sharing a burrow)

Written by Chad Jacobs

Here is my take on the care for argus monitors. This care sheet is for a single animal or a breeding pair.

CAGE SIZE- 8 feet long, 4 feet wide , 4 feet tall. Make sure you build it to open from the top. Side opening cages don't work well.

SUBSTRATE-Dirt works best. It should be no less than 2 feet deep. A tip to make (Two argus monitors, one tripoding photo by Chad Jacobs)

burrowing easier, which is very important, is to lay plywood on top of the substrate.

HEAT-The cool side of the cage should stay around 80 degrees. The basking temps I use are 125-130 degrees.

FOOD- I feed adult mice as the main diet. I'll also give them roaches and turkey with Miner-all, but only when I'm out of mice. As far as how much to feed them, let's just say a lot. I was able to fill up one of my argus monitors in six days costing $36 on the seventh day it was full. Note on feeding, if your basking spot is too cool your argus will not have the energy and appetite it should, and if you feed without the proper heat you will end up with a fat animal. FAT ANIMALS DIE YOUNG.

HUMIDITY- With the high temps needed, you will need to maintain high humidity. One of the most common ways to do this is to control the air flow leaving your cage.

WATER-I use a large water dish just to be on the safe side. It is not too often that I see them drink but it's there if they want it.

ATTITUDE- If you ask most argus monitor keepers if Argus are tame, they will laugh in your face. The "tame" argus is rare. If you are looking at an argus and it seems inactive, you should take it to the Vet or check your husbandry. If you are looking for an animal that will keep you watching its cage to see what it will do next. Then maybe an argus is for you.

There are many more species out there, these are just a few

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Snake Disease and health Care Issues

Amazon Tree Boa pic by Macowsky

Todays article is all about different snake health care issues a compilation from Animal Hospitals USA (its a long one)

Snake Diseases/General

Constipation: Is a common problem among captive snakes. Causes include suboptimal environmental temperature, illness, dehydration, injuries, parasitism, and cloacoliths (see below). Constipated snakes should be allowed to soak in very warm (not scalding hot) water for 20-30 minutes daily for 1-2 days. This often results in defecation and/or urination. It this conservative measure is not successful, veterinary help should be sought at once.

Cloacoliths: Dehydration of captive snakes (especially if long standing) may result in drying out of urinary excretions. When this occurs, uric acid "stones" tend to form within the cloaca ('cloacoloths'). Their presence in this location prevents expulsion of urinary waste and feces (constipation), which creates serious illness. Dehydration is a sign of disease and not a disease in itself, so it becomes the veterinarian's task to determine the underlying problem that caused the dehydration. Cloacoliths can usually be manually expelled with patience and the help of mineral oil enemas. Only an experienced veterinarian should attempt this procedure.

Prolapses: A prolapse occurs when an organ inverts itself inside out and protrudes through the usual external opening of that organ. Prolapses of the cloaca and reproductive organs are not uncommon among captive snakes. Often the cause cannot be determined. Straining during egg laying can precipitate prolapses or straining related to uric acid stones. Parasitic infections or other intestinal disease may also result in prolapses. Veterinary assistance is essential in these cases to treat the prolapse and determine the underlying cause, if possible.

Abnormal shedding: Occurs when the normal sequence of events of the shedding process is somehow interrupted. This usually results in a piece-meal shed and/or retained eye caps. Causes include serious internal disease, inadequate relative humidity, and previous injury (including surgery) to the skin and scales, external parasitism, lack of adequate objects against which to rub at the beginning of the shed, and thyroid gland problems. An abnormal shed indicates a problem that demands immediate attention. In these cases, consider all of the aforementioned causes, most of which demand veterinary assistance. Treatment of a snake with retained skin from an abnormal shed involves first soaking the snake in warm water for several hours. A damp towel can then be used to gently peel off stubborn skin fragments. An alternative to this manual method involves rolling the snake snugly in warm moist, heavy towels and allowing it to crawl out, leaving the stubborn skin fragments behind. This procedure can be repeated if necessary.

Retained eye caps: Are often a manifestation of an abnormal shed. The eye caps represent the outermost cellular layers of the corneas (the transparent portions of the eyes), which are supposed to be shed each time the outermost layers of the skin are shed. The retained caps must first be softened by repeated application of a suitable eye ointment. Next, an experienced veterinarian should attempt to carefully remove the corneal remnants. An inexperienced hobbyist should never attempt this.

Cancer: Occurs in snakes, but the number of reports is very limited. Some tumors have been diagnosed on living snakes, but most were diagnosed at the time of autopsy. As with mammals, tumors of snakes can be benign or malignant and originate from any organ or tissue of the body, including blood. Boa constrictors seem to be more often affected by cancer than other snakes commonly kept in captivity. This observation, however, may be the result of the disproportionately large number of boas kept by hobbyists because of their tremendous popularity. It is interesting to note, however, that most life-threatening malignancies that we have diagnosed in snakes have involved boa constrictors. Snake owners must be vigilant and seek prompt veterinary help when a growth or lump is detected on their snake(s) (especially if a boa constrictor is involved). "Mole-like" growths have been especially troublesome in our experience. Wounds that fail to heal despite treatment should make you equally suspicious.

Organ Failure: Failure of vital organ function may be the result of advancing age or cancer but is usually a consequence of chronic and unchecked disease among captive snakes. Disease that has gone undetected and/or untreated can have devastating and sometimes, fatal consequences. Under these circumstances, organ function is greatly compromised and the snake's usually smooth-running metabolism is threatened. Dehydration and uric acid build-up within the kidneys and possibly other vital organs further complicates the picture.

Snake Diseases/Feeding

Nutritional Deficiencies: As stated earlier, nutritional deficiencies and disease resulting from malnutrition are relatively rare among captive snakes because of their habit of consuming whole prey animals. However, exclusive use of whole but immature prey animals, such as "pinkies" (neonatal mice and rats), juvenile goldfish and invertebrates, can create nutritional problems. Further, certain snakes that receive a monotonous diet (no variety of prey items) are also susceptible to nutritional deficiencies. The hobbyist must find ways to 'supplement' the prey items in these cases before they are offered to the snake. One method involves injecting the prey items with vitamin and/or mineral preparations. Another involves implanting a gelatin capsule filled with a powdered vitamin/mineral/amino acid supplement into the prey animal.

Failure to Voluntarily Feed (Anorexia): Lack of appetite and failure to voluntarily feed are common problems among captive snakes. Despite the fact that snakes are uniquely suited to survive prolonged periods without feeding, the hobbyist must make every attempt to discover the reason(s) for the snake's failure to feed. This search must include the possibility of illness, since anorexia is a universal sign of disease in snakes. First consider the circumstances and situations during which snakes normally will not feed:

• Recent acquisition of a snake.
• Snake in pre-shed condition.
• Latter stages of pregnancy.
• Older, larger snakes feed less often than younger, smaller ones.
• Obese snakes occasionally engage in self-imposed fasts.
• Newborn or newly hatched snakes may not feed until after they've first shed 10-14 days after birth.
• Hyperactivity associated with the breeding season or the imposition of captivity on newly acquired high-strung species.
• Hibernation or attempts to hibernate.
• Illness

If all of the above have been rejected as causes for anorexia, you must next consider problems with husbandry. The most common cause for failure of a snake to voluntarily feed is inadequate environmental temperatures. Tropical snakes require temperatures between 75 to 85 F for normal activity and optimum digestive capacity. Subnormal temperatures lead to sluggishness and incomplete digestion. The food literally spoils inside the snake, producing serious illness, an early sign of which is vomiting. The next most common cause for captive snakes' refusing to feed is lack of adequate visual security. Many snakes require privacy while they feel. A hiding box or natural bark or rock retreat may be necessary. Sometimes placing the reluctant snake in a room burlap bag along with a dead or incapacitated prey item provides the security the snake requires to feed. Strategic placement of silk artificial plants may also help provide additional visual security. There may be one particular area of the enclosure in which the snake feels more secure. The food should be consistently placed where to encourage feeding. It is important to note that the presence of spectators often discourages nervous snakes from feeding. The enclosure should be covered in these cases and the snake's activity discreetly monitored.

It is extremely important for you to understand the natural history of the anorectic snake being kept in captivity. Reluctance or refusal to feed often is the result of some omission or mistake in husbandry. Burrowing species require sand or fine gravel in which to bury themselves. The snake can often be induced to strike at prey by gently dragging the prey item across the sand. Tree-dwelling species require branches within their enclosure. Some of these snakes may be encouraged to feed by hanging the food in the fork of a branch rather than placing it on the floor of the enclosure. If these specific husbandry requirements are not provided, certain snakes may not feed. Offering incorrect prey items nearly always causes a captive snake to refuse to eat. One should offer the prey items that the snake would feed n in the wild or similar more "domestic" food that is available. Following is a list of additional suggestions to consider when you are challenged with a snake that refuses to feed:

• Try feeding at different times of the day. Nocturnal (night-active) species cannot be expected to feed on prey items placed within the enclosure during the daytime.
• Try feeding nervous snakes that share an enclosure with other snakes in an environment separate from them. Often, the movement of other snakes in the same enclosure induces anorexia in nervous snakes.
• Moving a snake to a new or different enclosure may stimulate feeding.
• Reduce handling of especially nervous or newly acquired snakes to encourage feeding.
• Rubbing the food item over the sensitive areas of the snake's head (the nostrils and the areas surrounding the mouth) or gently hitting the snake with the prey may antagonize it to strike at the food.
• Offer live prey to snakes that have been consistently offered dead or incapacitated prey (with close supervision). Certain aggressive snakes and snakes with an impaired sense of smell may require live prey to successfully feed.
• For snakes that ordinarily eat live prey, try feeding dead or incapacitated live prey items. Often, the erratic motions of a rodent running around an enclosure can cause a snake to refuse to feed.
• Try feeding a smaller prey item. A snake that has been recently injured by a particularly large and aggressive prey animal may be reluctant to feed.
• Cater as much as possible to the individual preferences of an anorectic snake. If a snake refuses mice, try small rats, gerbils, hamsters, rabbits or even chicks. Some snakes can be very finicky.

If all of the above have been considered and attempted without success, take your snake to a veterinarian experienced with snakes. The veterinarian will collect a detailed history and conduct a through physical examination. It may be necessary to collect a blood sample to more thoroughly evaluate the patient. Take along a fecal (stool) sample from the snake so the veterinarian can also check for intestinal parasites. A veterinarian may pass a flexible tube into the stomach and force-feed the anorectic snake at this time. This provides some nutrients while the medical evaluation is in progress. Some anorectic snakes begin to voluntarily feed after such a feeding. This can be easily learned if periodic at-home force-feedings are anticipated. Strained meat baby foods with added nutrients or pureed dog food are recommended and easily pass through most stomach tubes. Larger snakes require relatively larger volumes of food; pureed dog food is a more practical food in these situations. Low-fat dog food is preferable.

Regurgitation: of food may result from handling a snake too soon after it is fed. Regurgitated food is undigested and relatively odorless. Another common cause of regurgitation is inadequate and incomplete digestion caused by relatively cool environmental temperatures. In these cases, the regurgitated food appears digested and is malodorous. If it is not possible to raise the temperature of the enclosure, a focal source of heat (hot rock, heating pad or pads) on which the snake can rest is a necessity to ensure adequate and complete digestion. Other causes of regurgitation include stress in easily excitable species, parasitism, intestinal obstruction and serious internal disease. An experienced veterinarian should be consulted if the cause for regurgitation is not readily determined.

Snake Diseases/Injuries

Trauma:

Burns: Snakes commonly sustain serious burns when they contact unprotected or malfunctioning heat lamps or other heat sources (including hot rocks). Interestingly, snakes tend not to move away from the heat source inflicting the injury. This makes the wound considerably more serious. Medical treatment (including injectable antibiotics and periodic wound dressings) is required in these cases. Surgery may be necessary to minimize the disfiguring effects of such injuries. These injuries are easily avoidable. Periodically check all heating appliances to make certain they are functioning properly and that they are "snake proof".

Rat/Mouse Attack: Sometimes a live mouse or rat turns the tables on a snake and injures the snake while fighting for its life (the dinner becomes the diner).Veterinary attention should be sought for serious bite wounds.

Rostral Abrasions: One of the unfortunate consequences of captivity is injury to the captive animal from repeated attempts to escape. Snakes tend to push and rub their noses against the walls of their enclosure as they move about in search of a means to escape. This constant trauma initially damages the scales and skin of the nose (rostrum). If the trauma continues, deep ulceration of the rostrum with subsequent deformity may result. Rostral abrasions are equally likely with enclosures made of glass or wire mesh. Prevention of this problem is difficult, but adequate visual security (hiding places) and other additions to the enclosure (artificial plants, branches, etc.) help minimize it. Further, a visual barrier of bark paint or plastic film placed on or along the loser 3-4 inches of the enclosure's walls often inhibits pacing and rubbing.

Abscesses: Abscesses are a common form of Bactirial infections in snakes. They can be external and/or internal in location. External abscesses most often result from bite wounds (usually inflicted by live prey animal) and other injuries (especially puncture wounds) to the skin. Internal abscesses may be located within one or more organs and/or within the body cavity. Snakes rarely produce liquid pus. Instead, their pus is generally cheesy in consistency. This makes treatment with antibiotics difficult because these drugs cannot penetrate this relatively solid material. External abscesses can be surgically opened and flushed by a veterinarian. A specimen of pus can be submitted to a laboratory for bacterial culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing. The snake can be treated with the appropriate antibiotic by injection, and the abscess cavity treated with topical antibiotics. Abscesses within the body are not equally accessible for treatment. A blood workup and/or radiographs (x-rays) may be necessary to confirm their presence. Though surgery may be necessary under certain circumstances, long-term antibiotic therapy by injection and appropriate supportive care are the treatments most likely to be employed by the veterinarian.

Snake Diseases/Parasitic

Parasitic Diseases: Snakes can be hosts to a large number of parasites, representing a bewildering variety of organisms that can cause many problems. A large number of one-celled organisms (protozoa) can cause serious diseases of the digestive, respiratory, reproductive and vascular blood and bloodstream) systems of snakes. Flukes cause illness in the respiratory and urinary systems. Tapeworms parasitize the digestive system. Roundworms and related parasites inhabit the digestive tract, but their juvenile states can cause disease to other organs (especially the lungs) during the course of their migrations. Large numbers of mites and ticks parasitize the skin and scales of snakes, and create disease by feeding on the host's blood. Signs of parasitism depend on the parasite and body tissue involved. External parasites are usually easy to diagnose, though immature stages of mites may lie dormant under scales or just inside the eye cavity. Visual inspection of the skin and scales, with or without a magnifying lens, is usually all that is necessary. Internal parasite problems require examination of various specimens, most often blood, feces, urinary tract products, and washings from the windpipe and lungs. Special laboratory procedures are necessary to process these specimens. Microscopic examination is usually necessary.

Most parasites of pet snakes and snakes kept in zoological collections are carried with them into captivity. These snakes were either parasitized before being collected in the wild or became parasitized while being held in the generally crowded wholesale and retail channels. Pet snakes living singly in homes are very unlikely to develop parasite problems in these relatively isolated environments. Exceptions to this generalization include pet snakes exposed to parasitized snakes and their excretions, or to the specific organisms (called "vectors") necessary for parasites to complete their life cycles. In most cases, the vector must bite the uninfected snake for the snake to become parasitized. It is also possible for a captive snake to become parasitized by eating certain prey species that harbor the larval stage of a given parasite. Newly acquired snakes should be thoroughly examined and evaluated by a veterinarian for external and internal parasites as soon as possible after acquisition. All detected parasitism should be treated, if possible. No snake should be introduced into a collection until a veterinarian has examined it, and until it has been quarantined for a minimum of 8 weeks and remains healthy during this period. Strict attention to hygiene and sanitation and a proper diet usually contribute to optimum health, even in the face of mild to moderate parasitism. Because the subject of parasitism is so extensive, only several of the more common parasite problems of captive snakes will be specifically mentioned:

Amebiasis: Amebiasis is one of the most significant parasite problems of captive snakes. This highly contagious disease is caused by a microscopic, one-celled organism (protozoan) called and ameba. Eating contaminated food and water containing the infective stage of this parasite easily infects snakes. The organisms cause extensive damage to the intestinal lining and liver. Secondary bacterial infections are very common and contribute significantly to the severity of the disease. Signs of amebiasis include listlessness, inappetence, and foul-smelling feces containing mucus and blood. A veterinarian may be able to diagnose this disease by having the laboratory examine specially prepared samples of feces. Sometimes examination of tissue sections of the intestine or scrapings from the lining of the intestine of a deceased snake is the only way the diagnosis can be confirmed. This underscores the importance of performing autopsies on snakes that have died, especially when there are other snakes in the collection whose lives may be threatened. Many snakes native to the American Southwest harbor these organisms but apparently do not suffer from the disease. Crocodiles and certain turtles are similar "carriers." Hobbyists must, therefore, exercise caution when housing snakes with these species to avoid an outbreak of amebiasis. Certain water snakes, as well as boa constrictors and pythons are especially susceptible to this disease. Amebiasis is treatable, requiring the expertise of a veterinarian. Specific antiprotozoal medications and antibiotics are used. Enclosures used to house infected snakes should be steam cleaned and disinfected with a 3% bleach solution.

Trichomoniasis: One of the most commonly recognized parasites of snakes is another protozoan, Trichomonas. This organism is often noted in the stools of snakes when routine direct examinations are undertaken. Infection with Trichomonas may result from ingestion of mice and rats, both of which often harbor the parasite without showing signs of illness. Infected snakes may exhibit no signs or those associated with gastrointestinal disease (inappetence, vomiting, and diarrhea). Some infected snakes may also have bacterial disease at the same time. Some experts remain unconvinced that this parasite, by itself, can produce disease in snakes because infected snakes are often suffering from amebiasis at the same time. The most prudent course of action is to treat all snakes harboring the parasite. Fortunately, the treatment for trichomoniasis is usually effective in eliminating the organism that causes amebiasis. A veterinarian should be consulted regarding diagnosis and treatment of this parasitic disease.

Snake Mite Infestation: Snake mites are tiny spider-like organisms that reside on and between the scales of snakes and tend to also congregate around their eyes. They are relatively easy to see with the unaided eye but a magnifying lens aids in their identification. Mites are the most common and most dangerous of the external parasites of captive snakes. These mites feed on the blood of their hosts, causing anemia (often sever with heavy infestations). Blood feeding can also transmit viruses, at least one very serious disease-causing bacterium, and blood parasites. The snake mite completes its life cycle on its host. The females, however, lay up to 80 eggs off the snake within the immediate environment. This is one reason why particulate floor coverings (corncob material, pebbles, etc.) are not recommended. These substrates provide too many hiding places for the mites and their eggs.

Snakes that are most likely to be seriously compromised by this external parasite are those that have been recently imported and those housed under crowded, unhygienic conditions. Heavily parasitized snakes are also likely to be adversely affected when they are suffering from malnutrition and/or other diseases at the same time. Veterinarians must be consulted when these various circumstances arise. These snakes must be carefully examined and thoroughly evaluated so that underlying disease and problems with husbandry can be identified and corrected. Further, the recommended treatment can often be injurious, especially to snakes suffering from debility and/or disease. The veterinarian must perform a thorough physical examination and may recommend a blood analysis to fully evaluate the patient, the advisability of treatment and the least harmful method of treatment for mites. Several treatments are available for snake mites. One popular method involves suspending a No-Pest Strip (Hot Shot) above or adjacent to the snake's enclosure for 2-5 days. One expert recommends a "dosage" of 0.2 inches of commercial strip per 10 cubic feet of enclosure. An alternative is to place a 1-inch section of a No-Pest Strip within a 35-mm film container with multiple perforations and suspend it inside the enclosure for 2-5 days. These products should be used cautiously, however. They can be especially toxic to severely ill and debilitated snakes. Flea sprays formulated for use on dogs and cats can be applied to a small towel and the chemical can be wiped onto the skin and scales. This should be repeated about 10 days later. During treatment, paper or towels must replace any particulate floor covering (gravel, crushed corncob, wood shavings, etc.) within the enclosure. All water containers should also be removed. The enclosure itself should be thoroughly cleaned and fumigated with 10-15% solution of formalin and hot water. After a thorough rinsing, the enclosure should be allowed to completely dry before it is re-inhabited. Treated snakes should be closely monitored for several months for signs of re-infestation and mite-related disease.

Snake Tick Infestation: Ticks resemble oversized mites and occupy many of the same sites on the skin and scales of snakes as mites. They are often found just inside the mouth, nostrils or vent. Even under conditions of captivity, ticks rarely reach the burdensome numbers reached by mites. Recently imported snakes are usually the most heavily parasitized. Like mites, ticks feed on blood of the host snake and can cause severe, life-threatening anemia. Their blood-feeding habit enables them to transmit certain blood-borne diseases to snakes. Manual removal of each individual tick is the most expedient treatment for tick infestations. The hobbyist must exercise great care in performing this task. Simply pulling off the tick leaves the tick's mouth parts embedded in the skin. A small amount of alcohol applied to the exposed parts of the tick causes it to relax and facilitates removal. The treatment methods recommended for mites are also effective. Parasitized snakes usually require a minimum of 4 days exposure to No-Pest Strips to kill ticks. Enlist the services of an experienced veterinarian for a thorough pretreatment evaluation of the snake, especially if the use of a No-Pest Strip is anticipated.

Snake Diseases/Infections

Mouth Rot (Infectious or Ulcerative Stomatitis): Is a progressive bacterial infection involving the oral lining. It may begin with increased salivation. Often saliva bubbles from the mouth. Close inspection of the oral lining reveals tiny pinpoint areas of bleeding. The oral lining becomes increasingly inflamed and pus begins to accumulate within the mouth, especially among the rows of teeth. As the disease progresses, the underlying bone becomes infected and the teeth fall out. This infection must be recognized in the early stages to successfully reverse it. The hobbyist must seek veterinary help when mouth rot is first evident. The veterinarian may want to collect a saliva/pus specimen for bacterial culture and subsequent antibiotic sensitivity testing to determine the appropriate antibiotic(s) to use. A blood sample can also be collected to accurately assess the internal and overall status of the patient. Mouth rot often is an external manifestation of more serious internal problems. Initial treatment involves injections of vitamins A, C and B complex, as well as a "best guess" antibiotic (one that the veterinarian believes has the best chance of fighting the infection until the results of antibiotic sensitivity tests are available). Supportive care involves daily or twice-daily cleansing of the mouth, application of topical antibiotics, administration of fluids to combat dehydration and the possible detrimental effects of certain antibiotics, and periodic forced-feedings (using a stomach tube). Generally, snakes with heavy accumulations of pus and infected bones of the jaw are unlikely to be saved, even with aggressive veterinary efforts. You must be alert to the early stages of the disease and periodically inspect the mouth for signs of mouth rot.

Blister disease: Is common in many captive reptiles. It is most often associated with the maintenance of these animals in damp, filthy environments. The first sign is usually a pink to red appearance of the bottom-most scales. Later, these scales become swollen and infected by bacteria and fungi. At the first suspicion of this disease, you must seek veterinary help. Treatment involves use of topical and injectable antibiotics. Further, the underlying sanitation and hygiene problems must be corrected. Blister disease is preventable if you are aware of it and if the enclosure in which captive snakes are housed is kept dry and scrupulously clean.

Septicemia: A wide variety of bacteria can cause generalized internal infections (septicemia). These bacteria may invade the body by way of wounds and abscesses or as a consequence of serious illness originally localized in the respiratory, gastrointestinal and reproductive tracts. Signs may be subtle or obvious and may include lethargy, anorexia, dehydration, and regurgitation of incompletely digested food, redness to the skin and scales, or bleeding from the skin. The help of an experienced veterinarian is essential n these cases. The outlook for these patients is always guarded to poor. The attending veterinarian may collect a specimen for bacterial culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing, as well as one or more blood samples to more accurately determine the extent of the disease, whether or not various internal organs are involved, and as a means of monitoring the patient's progress. Treatment involves use of injectable antibiotics and appropriate supportive care (fluid therapy, force-feeding, injectable vitamins, etc.). Treatment must usually be relatively long-term and periodic monitoring of the patient's status is essential to a favorable outcome.

Respiratory infections: Are common in snakes. They may be associated with septicemia (body-wide illness, viral infections and mouth rot. Some respiratory illness may be the consequence of stress from poor or inadequate husbandry. Signs include loud respiration, discharge and/or bubbling from the nostrils and/or mouth, coughing and open-mouth breathing. Treatment must be aggressive and at the direction of a veterinarian. A bacterial culture of the windpipe and subsequent antibiotic sensitivity testing should be undertaken to identify the offending bacteria and the appropriate antibiotic(s) to use. The veterinarian may also recommend collecting a blood sample to determine the extent of the disease and to see if there has been serious compromise to internal organs. Antibiotic therapy should be by injection and may need to be long-term, especially in severe and long-standing cases. Inhalation therapy (vaporization or nebulization) is frequently employed as part of treatment.

Eye Infections: Captive snakes occasionally suffer eye infections. Infections may be superficial or more extensive, involving the entire eye. Superficial infections may result from mild injury to the eye. Superficial infections may also become established below a retained eye cap. Infections of this type must be recognized promptly and treated aggressively to prevent involvement of the entire eye. The retained eye cap must first be removed if at all possible. Infections involving the entire eye may result from trauma to the eye or from septicemia (body-wide) infection. In the latter case, the bacteria enter the eye by way of the bloodstream. Veterinary help is essential with these cases. Treatment involves use of topical and/or injectable antibiotics. Sometimes, drugs that help to exercises the iris (the colored portion inside the eye) are used to help prevent adhesions inside the eye.

Viral infections in snakes, as a whole, are generally poorly understood. This is because viruses are extremely difficult to detect and identify. They are equally difficult or impossible to treat. Viral infections result in tumorous skin growths in many native snake species. Other viruses can cause digestive, respiratory and nervous system disease among snakes. An example is a recently recognized viral encephalitis affecting pythons and boa constrictors. Afflicted constrictor species exhibit a very gradual deterioration of the brain and eventually die. Most viruses are highly contagious. Hobbyists must be aware of this and quarantine all newly acquired snakes for at least 6-8 weeks. This involves complete isolation of new snakes and careful scrutiny of them during this period for any signs of illness. All newly acquired snakes should be thoroughly examined and evaluated by a veterinarian experienced with snakes. Blood tests may offer clues as to viral infections.

Fungal Infections: A number of fungal organisms can cause superficial and deeper infections of snakes. Most of these infections involve the skin and respiratory system. Fungal infections of the eyes are most likely to occur in snakes housed in damp, contaminated environments. Ringworm fungi that usually infect people, pets and livestock have also caused skin infections of snakes. Snakes must be housed in scrupulously clean and dry enclosures. The flooring must be easy to clean and should not be of a material that encourages fungal (mold) growth (see section on Housing). A veterinarian must examine Snakes exhibiting problems with their skin and/or eyes as soon as possible. A microbial culture and a skin biopsy may be necessary to obtain a diagnosis. Treatment of fungal diseases involves use of topical and systemic (oral and/or injectable) antifungal agents. Prevention of fungal disease involves correcting underlying problems with husbandry.

Snake Care

Housing: As a general rule, snakes require relatively little space because of their limited and nonexertional activity. Generally speaking, the size of the enclosure should allow inclusion of certain required items (discussed below) and still allow the snake adequate space to stretch out and move about. Snakes will use both the horizontal and vertical space within their enclosure if provisions are made for this activity. Aquaria or other similar glass or Plexiglas-lined enclosures are usually most suitable because they allow optimum visualization of and safety for the occupant(s), and help to maintain desirable environmental temperatures and generally high relative humidity levels. Wire-lined enclosures may afford adequate visualization of the snake but certainly cannot contribute to the maintenance of desirable environmental temperature and humidity levels. Further, such enclosures promote injuries to the rostrum (nose and surrounding tissues) as snakes repeatedly attempt to "escape" through the wire mesh. Any enclosure used must have a secure top and be escape-proof. All hinges and locks should be secure. All snakes are potential "escape artists" and many (especially the California King snakes) can escape form almost any apparently secure enclosure.

Floor Coverings and Enclosure Items: Unprinted newsprint, butcher paper, paper towels, terrycloth towels and indoor-outdoor carpeting are the most suitable materials for covering the bottom of a snake's enclosure. In fact, the first 2 materials mentioned can be cut to size and placed many layers think on to the floor of the enclosure. When the top layer(s) are soiled, they can be easily removed, leaving clean, dry paper. This makes cleaning of the enclosure very quick and efficient. If indoor-outdoor carpeting is used, it is best to have 2-3 pieces cut to the correct dimensions. This way, replacements can be used while the soiled piece is cleaned and disinfected. Under no circumstances should pea gravel, kitty litter, crushed corncob material or wood shavings be used. These are unquestionable more visually aesthetic than most of the materials mentioned above; however, they are unsuitable because they trap moisture and filth, provide unlimited "hiding places" for external parasites, and make enclosures very difficult to clean. Furthermore, these types of particulate matter are easily and inadvertently eaten while the snake is feeding. This can cause mechanical injury to or obstruction of the digestive tract. Various objects should be included within a snake's enclosure that occupies its vertical area. These include sturdy branches of various hardwood trees or those fabricated from artificial materials, driftwood, grapevine, hanging ropes, and shelves situated along the sides of the enclosure.

Visual Security: It is very important to provide some privacy for a captive snake. Many snakes will not feed without the privacy afforded by some degree of visual security. This can be accomplished by providing a "hide box" into which the snake can retreat when it feeds or at other times when privacy is desired. Visual security can also be provided by the use and strategic placement of silk artificial plants (and trees if the enclosure is large enough to accommodate them). Silk plants are visually pleasing and easy to clean and disinfect. They require minimal maintenance, help to augment the relative humidity level of the enclosure if the foliage is frequently misted, and can complement a snake's ability to camouflage itself, thereby providing visual security.

Climatic Considerations: Tropical snakes kept in captivity (boa constrictors, pythons, etc) require relatively warm temperatures and high relative humidity. Daytime temperatures should range between 80 and 85° F. Nighttime temperatures can fall between 70-75 F without creating problems for most snakes. Native American snakes do well when maintained at 70-80° F. Relatively large enclosures can be supplied with heat lamps or heaters equipped with thermostats, whereas small enclosures may be adequately heated by placing a heating pad directly underneath them. Exposed heat sources must be shielded to protect snakes from serious burns as they attempt to warm themselves by coiling next to them. Large and small enclosures should also provide the snake a focal (spot) source of warmth. Small snakes should be offered a hot rock. Large snakes can use one or more well-protected and waterproofed heating pads. These appliances allow the snake direct, but safe, contact with the heat source, which helps to raise their body temperature. This allows the snake to be more active and increases the rate of digestion. Check these appliances frequently for malfunction and periodically check the snake for evidence of burns because snakes generally do not move away from heat-generating appliances even if they are being severely burned.

Lighting: Ideally, it would be advantageous for all captive reptiles to be housed in such a way that they could be exposed to and benefit form direct, unfiltered sunlight during the daylight hours every day. This represents the healthiest and most natural situation. Unfortunately, hobbyists can rarely fulfill this set of circumstances because it is neither practical nor possible. The next best solution is to use an artificial ultraviolet light source rather than fluorescent or incandescent light bulbs. One or more Vitalites (Duro-Lite Lamps, Duro-Test Copr, Lyndhurst, NJ 07071) should be used to illuminate the enclosure during the daylight hours. To approximate a natural photo-period, it is best to supply 1-12 hours of daylight and 12-14 hours of darkness each day, with a gradual increase in the number of hours of light in spring and a gradual decrease in the fall and winter months.

Water: should be provided at all times. Most snakes drink infrequently but use a suitable sized container for immersing themselves and soaking. Another advantage for including a relatively large water container is that water evaporation contributes to the relative humidity of the enclosure. This is especially true if the enclosure is glass or Plexiglas-lined. The water container should be roomy enough to allow adequate soaking and heavy enough so it can not be easily overturned. Water containers must be thoroughly and regularly cleaned. Failure to do so encourages bacterial proliferation. Snakes drinking and soaking in the water soon become ill. Use Rocall-D (Winthrop Veterinary, NY, NY 10016) to disinfect the snake's enclosure and furnishings at least once every 2-4 weeks.

Snake Health

The key to optimum health and longevity of captive snakes is the pursuit of sound husbandry and feeding practices. Equally important are the hobbyist's awareness of the potential health problems that can afflict captive snakes and the vital role of the experienced veterinarian in diagnosing and treating them. Snake enthusiasts must make educated and informed decisions when selecting a pet or additions to their collections. Remember that newly acquired snakes often have one or more health problems. A thorough veterinary evaluation (physical examination, fecal exam, blood and microbiologic work-ups) of the new acquisition is always recommended. Such an assessment determines the true (rather than the perceived) health status of the snake. A veterinary evaluation of this type should be undertaken once yearly as the basis for a preventive medicine program. The importance of periodic, routine veterinary exams for disease prevention cannot be over-emphasized. When disease is suspected or obvious, veterinary assistance is mandatory to thoroughly evaluate the patient, arrive at a diagnosis as quickly as possible, and promptly institute appropriate treatment so that diseases are not allowed to progress unchecked. The veterinarian will need answers to a number of routine but very important questions when you present your snake for a routine health check or because of a suspected medical problem. This list includes the following questions and instructions:

• From what source was the snake acquired? ( pet shop, private party, etc.)
• Do you have any knowledge about previous owner(s) of the snake?
• Do you have other snakes? If so, how many, and of which species?
• What are the housing arrangements for the snakes? Any recent acquisitions?
• Do you routinely quarantine new acquisitions?
• Describe the dimensions of the enclosure in which this snake is housed.
• Of what materials is the enclosure constructed?
• What floor coverings are used in the enclosure?
• What other items are used in the enclosure?
• Describe the heat sources used in the enclosure.
• What is the environmental temperature within the enclosure?
• Is an artificial UV light source used?
• Describe the water container/soak pit used.
• Are hiding places provided for the snake?
• What is the snake fed?
• Is the snake fed live, stunned, freshly killed or thawed frozen prey?
• How often is the snake fed?
• Has the snake regurgitated recently?
• When did the snake last defecate?
• When did the snake last shed?
• Was the shed complete (in one piece) or in pieces?

· Snake Feeding

· Before specific feeding recommendations are made, it is important to make several points and cautions regarding the feeding of captive snakes. The most respected herpetologists and experienced snake hobbyists all agree that captive snakes should be fed dead or incapacitated prey whenever possible. This is because such prey cannot injure the feeding snake. Providing killed prey that has been frozen is convenient and economical for the hobbyists. Snakes may be induced to eat thawed, frozen prey animals by clipping hair from the coat of a live rat and rolling the proposed food in it just before feeding. Though freezing, thawing and subsequent feeding of whole prey animals is a common practice among hobbyists and herpetologists, some experts believe that such food sources should be "gutted" (eviscerated) before they are frozen. This greatly reduces the possibility of generalized bacterial contamination of the carcass. To replace those nutrients within the viscera that would otherwise be lost, the hobbyist can place a gelatin capsule filled with a vitamin/mineral/amino acid supplement (Nekton-Rep: Nekton Products, W. Germany) into the body cavity before feeding the thawed prey animal to the snake.

· Rodents (rats and mice in particular) left unattended and unobserved within an enclosure with a supposedly hungry snake sometimes turn on the "diner" and inflict serious bite wounds on it. These "dinner becomes the diner" incidents are most likely to occur when a snake is ill or otherwise uninterested in feeding. If snakes do not accept freshly killed or well thawed frozen prey, the live prey must be stunned so that it is sufficiently incapacitated and unable to injure the snake. Live rodents can be placed in a paper bag, which is then swiftly slammed down on a countertop to stun the rodent inside. If such an incapacitated animal is offered to a snake that is generally accustomed to receiving its food in this fashion and the snake refuses it, the prey animal can be killed and frozen, and offered at a later time. If it is not possible to offer anything other than live and fully conscious prey for a snake to successfully feed, the encounter must be carefully supervised. If a snake shows no interest in feeding within 10-15 minutes after the prey has been introduced, the prey should be removed and all of the possible reasons for the snake's lack of interest in feeding should be investigated. (See section on Failure to Voluntarily Feed). If other similar attempts to feed the snake within the next 1-2 weeks are equally unsuccessful, veterinary help should be sought at once.

· Infections: Snakes acquire a large number of infectious areas from the foods they consume, especially because of the snake's habit of feeding on whole prey items. It is not practical or possible to ensure that all prey animals are absolutely free of disease-causing agents. However, prey animals that are to be fed to captive snakes should appear healthy and come from a reliable source. Extreme caution should be exercised when feeding snakes. This is especially important if a given snake is expected to be hungry and if human-snake interaction is limited to feeding times. An overzealous and hungry snake is very likely to strike at a person immediately after the enclosure is opened and as the prey item in introduced. Large snakes can be especially treacherous and dangerous at these times because of their ability to overcome and overpower their keepers. Hobbyists and even a few expert herpetologists have been seriously injured or even killed at such times.

· Great caution must also be exercised when feeding more than one snake within an enclosure. Serious problems result when 2 snakes choose to prey on the same food item. If one snake attaches to the front of a mouse and another attacks at the tail end of the same mouse, neither snake will surrender its hold. Both snakes will continue to feed and eventually one will consume the other! When 2 or more snakes are housed within the same enclosure, they should be fed individually by holding the prey animal in long forceps or tongs.

· Captive snakes as a group usually do not suffer from major nutritional deficiencies, unlike the majority of reptiles kept in captivity. This is largely because pet snakes are allowed to feed as they do in the wild, on whole prey items. The prey species fed to captive snakes are undoubtedly different from those present in the snake's natural environment. Further, the relatively narrow diversity of prey animals that can be fed to captive snakes due to practical and economic considerations is in contrast to the wide variety of prey animals potentially available to wild-living snakes. In spite of these major differences, the incidence of malnutrition and malnutrition-related problems among captive snakes is quite low; markedly contrasting the usual situate with most captive reptiles and their seemingly limitless malnutrition-related disease problems. The potential for malnutrition and malnutrition-related disease tends to be greatest among juvenile snakes fed primarily very immature vertebrate (rodents, birds, reptiles, amphibians, etc.) and invertebrate prey species (insects primarily). These food items are not as nutrient-rich as their more adult counterparts.

· Feeding schedules for captive snakes vary with the age, species, size, condition and specific requirements of the individual. Generally speaking, pet snakes are usually fed once every 1-2 weeks. Juveniles and adults for which a relatively rapid growth rate is desired can be fed more frequently, providing that environmental temperatures are warm enough to allow complete and thorough digestion. Older snakes are usually fed less frequently, often once every 3-6 weeks. The number of prey animals offered at each feeding is determined by the same factors discussed above with regard to frequency of feeding. Overfeeding must be avoided because of the risk of obesity. Too-frequent feedings and allowing a captive snake to consume multiple prey animals at each feeding encourages rapid growth. It also leads to obesity in older animals. The relative difficulty in procuring food limits this phenomenon in the wild.

· Snake Shedding

· Shedding (Ecdysis) is the process by which snakes periodically discard the outer portion of their skin. This activity is under hormonal control and associated with growth. Most snakes shed their skin 4-8 times per year. The frequency of shedding depends upon many factors, including environmental temperatures, frequency of feeding, amount fed at each feeding, and activity level. Young snakes shed more frequently than older ones because growth is relatively rapid in the first few years of life. Healthy snakes usually have little or no difficulty with shedding and tend to shed their skins in one entire piece. Exceptions to this include snakes with injuries to the skin and/or scales resulting in scarring, and snakes housed in enclosures with sub-optimal temperature and/or relative humidity levels. The stresses associated with shedding can be substantial. Sick snakes, those suffering from malnutrition, or those whose health has been directly or indirectly compromised by poor husbandry experience delayed and incomplete sheds. These snakes tend to shed their skins in pieces. In fact, many of the pieces remain adhered to the underlying skin and eyes (retained eye caps).

· The shedding process is preceded by a period of relative inactivity. This period usually lasts 1-2 weeks, during which time the eyes begin to exhibit a dull, bluish-white appearance. During this period, the snake's vision is impaired, which causes them to be rather unpredictable and sometimes aggressive. The skin during this period tends to have an overall dull appearance. The underlying new skin is soft and vulnerable to damage while the outer layers prepare to sough away. The eyes again become transparent after 7-15 days and shedding commences. A snake will make use of any rough objects or surfaces within its enclosure to help shed the skin. Shedding commences with the skin of the head. Once the snake has loosened and dislodged the skin surrounding the mouth and over-lying the rostrum (nose), it then passes between rough objects that can trap the loose skin and hold it as the snake glides out of the "old" skin. Discarded skin appears dry and tube-like or moist and crumpled in a solitary heap. Many snakes defecate after a successful shed, or consume large quantities of water.

· Snake Reproduction

· Snakes produce offspring in 2 basic ways: The first involves development of the fertilized eggs within the body of the female. When the embryos are fully developed, the offspring are born, appearing like miniature adults. Boa constrictors, water and garter snakes, and rattlesnakes are live bearing species and are considered ovoviviparous. The second method involves deposition of oblong, leathery-shelled eggs within the environment, where the eggs incubate. At the completion of embryonic development, the eggs hatch, producing miniature adults. Pythons and rat and mild snakes are egg layers, and are considered oviparous. In either case, the newborn or newly hatched can fend for themselves and receive no parental nurturing.

· Many snake species readily mate in captivity: One mating may result in up to 3 clutches of eggs or 3 "litters" of live young. This is because sperm can be stored within the reproductive tract of the female after insemination. The proper pairing of snakes according to age and sex is essential if reproduction in captivity is to be successful. Sexing of snakes can be difficult because males generally resemble females. Male pythons and boa constrictors have a spur on each side of the vent. Some females have spurs but they are usually smaller than those of males. These observations can be misleading at times. Snakes under 18 inches long can usually be sexed by exerting pressure on the tissues surrounding the vent. Male snakes have paired hemipenes (elongated, spurred structures used during copulation) that can be extruded with this maneuver. The widely accepted method for sexing most snakes over 18 inches in length requires specialized sexing probes. These elongated, blunt-tipped instruments are gently inserted into the vent and directed toward the tail. The probe penetrates only a short distance in females and a much longer distance in males. Only experienced handlers should attempt this procedure.

· Artificial Incubation of Snake Eggs: Artificial incubation of fertile snake eggs is quite easy. A small amount of water is added to an empty Styrofoam picnic chest. Then, a thick layer of peat moss, sphagnum moss, vermiculite, shredded newspaper or paper towels is added. The eggs are carefully introduced into this medium. Slightly moistening the incubation material also helps prevent the eggs' drying out. Too much moisture, however, promotes formation of mold, which will destroy the eggs' contents. The relative humidity required to incubate snake eggs falls within the range of 75-85%. The covered Styrofoam chest is then placed on a heating pad, which is set on its lowest heat setting. The ideal temperature range for most incubation lies between 78 to 84° F. The average incubation period for most snakes ranges between 55 and 60 days.

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